1. In Search of New Lands
The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of worldwide
exploration and expansion that resulted from the desire to gain new lands,
power, and wealth for the explorers and their countries. In the last two
centuries of the Middle Ages (1300-1500), the Europeans, while regaining the
Holy Land from the Muslims, were able to establish commerce with the Orient
through trade routes. Spices like pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions, and garlic
were the most important items of trade from the East, owing to the desire of
the Europeans to enhance the taste of food and to preserve meat during winter
time.
The fall of Constantinople (1453) and the emergence of the Ottoman Turks
closed the former trade routes to the East, causing the monarch s and
navigators of Europe to find new routes across the seas. The Portuguese were a
few years ahead of the Spaniards in the discovery of new trade routes. Inspired
by Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese navigators sailed down
the African coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by Bartolome Dias, the
Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope. A few years later, in 1498, Vasco de
Gama reached Calicut, India, by sailing eastward from the cape.
The end of the reconquistas (wars against the Moors) in 1492, paved the
way for great voyages including the discovery of the New World (America) for
Spain. Christopher Columbus, who had failed to convince the King of Portugal
that he could reach the East by sailing westward, was able to get the support
of the Spanish Crown.
After these remarkable voyages, Portugal and Spain became keen rivals
in colonizing new lands because of gold, spices, and other merchandise found in
the Orient, as well as their religious zeal to proselytize the natives.
European adventurers made daring voyages and sought new lands and riches. Great
explorers were able to discover various routes for their expeditions, which
marked the Age of Exploration (1492-1682).
On May 3,1493, Pope Alexander VI, attempting to settle the rivalry,
issued a papal bull known as the Inter caetera. The Pope decreed that the
Spanish zone of exploration should be west of the imaginary line drawn north to
south, 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All lands east of
the demarcation line should belong to Portugal. The demarcation line was drawn
to identify Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration and conquest. The
following year, the two kingdoms agreed in the Treaty ofTordesillas to move the
demarcation line 170 leagues (about 1,100 miles) west of Cape Verde islands and
still be guided by the provisions of the papal bull. The revised treaty allowed
Portugal to claim what is now Brazil while Spain was given the rest of the Americas
(Perry et al., 1988: 353).
In 1505, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a member of the nobility of
Portugal sailed with a fleet carrying the first Portuguese viceroy to the I
last Indies in 1506 and from there, was sent to Malacca (Melaka) in the Malay
Peninsula and the spice markets of Ambon and Banda in Western Indonesia. He was
promoted to the rank of captain in 1510. He returned to Portugal in 1512.
During those days, all explorations were done by latitude sailing by means of
an astrolabe. Through observing wind directions and ocean tides, Magellan later
conceived the idea of a passage to the west or around South America to reach
the Moluccas or Spice Islands (islands of present-day Indonesia). While finding
the chance to present his plan to King Manuel of Portugal, he fought against
the Moors in Morocco in 1513. There he received his wounds that left him lame
for life. After his return to Portugal, Magellan proposed to the king his plan
to travel a westward route to the Moluccas. The king refused and even canceled
his promotion probably because of charges of financial irregularities while he
was in Morocco.
Disgusted by the king's response, he renounced his Portuguese
citizenship. He went to Spain in 1517. In his new found home, Magellan met
influential persons who helped him get support for his plan to find a new route
to the Spice Islands from King Charles I (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V).
One of them was Bishop Juan de Fonseca, the head of the Royal Council of the
Indies (division in charge of overseas expeditions).
Spurred by the competition to win against Portugal in obtaining high-
priced spices, Spain commissioned Magellan to find a route to Moluccas by
sailing west. Such passage would be beneficial to Spain for Portugal controlled
the eastward route to the East Indies around Africa's Cape of Good Hope. The
contract for the expedition was signed on March 28,1518. Magellan was named
captain general of the expedition.
2. Magellan's New Route to the East
Magellan left the port of San Lucar de Barrameda, Spain, on September
20,1519 with five ships namely: Trinidad, Conception, Santiago, San Antonio,
and Victoria together with about 250 men. The expedition intended to
circumnavigate the earth in the service of Spain. Accompanying him were Fr. Pedro
de Valderrama (fleet chaplain), Antonio Pigafetta (chronicler of the
expedition), Duarte Barbosa (Magellan's brother-in-law), and his Malay slave
Enrique of Malacca (acting as interpreter).
The fleet sailed through familiar waters along the westcoast of Africa.
They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the Atlantic, they landed
on the South American coast, now Pernambuco, Brazil, on November 29. Magellan
continued the voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He named it Santa
Lucia, because he landed there on the saint's feast day. There they traded with
the native Americans for provisions.
The voyage continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they were at the tip
of the South American continent, it was already winter. The snowstorms were in
a headstrong. The men became apprehensive and asked Magellan that they all
return to Spain. Magellan declined. Instead, he asked them to take courage. The
ships took shelter from storms in Port San Julian (now in Argentina) in March
1520.
Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the maneuvering of
three ships, the San Antonio, the Conception, and the Victoria. The next day,
Gaspar de Quesada, captain of the Conception, wrote to Magellan that he and
others would not recognize his authority unless they return immediately to
Spain. Still, Magellan refused to heed their petition.
Juan de Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian del Cano (called
Elcano), and Gaspar de Quesada were found guilty of treason but pardoned. But
Cartagena continued to plot again, this time with one of the priests, Pero
Sanchez de Reina. They were probably jealous because the captain-general of
this Spanish expedition was a Portuguese. Magellan had the two left off the
coast of an unnamed island.
With the first signs of spring, the exploratory voyage continued in
search of a route to the Southern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). A strong typhoon had
driven ashore and destroyed the smallest ship, Santiago. In August, the four
ships went farther south and eventually, they came upon a strait, which
Magellan called "Strait of All Saints" (now Strait of Magellan).
Magellan sent the San Antonio to explore the southeast opening of the
strait. Trinidad entered the southwest. Secretly, San Antonio, piloted by
Esteban Gomez (a Portuguese), deserted on the night of November 20 and sailed
back for Spain.
The fleet reached the Southern Sea, which Magellan named Ocean Pacific
because it was calm. Unfortunately, Magellan had underestimated the ocean's
size. In the next five months, the ship was running out of supplies. Instead of
biscuits, the men ate sawdust. They also started to eat leather rope guards and
even rats. Many got sick with scurvy (a gum disease). A number of his men died.
But Magellan and his men bravely sailed on and by March 6, 1521 they
had reached an island in the Western Pacific. He called it Islas Ladrones (or
Islands of Thieves, later to be named Marianas, in honor of Maria Ana of
Austria, Queen Regent of Spain) because some of the native Chamorros had stolen
a boat from the flagship. To stop them, Magellan ordered his men to fire their
guns.
1. Voyage to the Philippines
From Ladrones Islands, Magellan's fleet went on their journey westward.
At the dawn of Saturday, on March 16, 1521, they saw the towering heights of
Samar and named the island Islas de San Lazaro, for it was the feast day of St.
Lazarus. They stayed overnight off Suluan Island. I he following day, they
landed on the small uninhabited islet of Humunu (Homonhon) found at the mouth
of Leyte Gulf and built two tents for the sick.
On the third day after their arrival on March 18, they met nine natives
from the neighboring island of Suluan who arrived in a boat. Seeing them .1
friendly people, Magellan gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, small I ells,
ivory, fine linen cloth, and other trifles. In return, the islanders gave them
their cargo of bananas, fish, coconuts, and palm wine (tuba).
On Holy Thursday, March 28, the fleet landed in another island called
Mazaua, which could be Limasawa in Leyte or Masao in Butuan. Rajah kolambu was
rowed to where the Europeans were. At first, he refused to board Magellan's big
ship. Finally, the rajah welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard his ship. He
gave Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, while Magellan gave a red cap and a
red-and-yellow robe.
Subsequently, Magellan's men held a mock fight. The soldier in a suit
of armor remained unhurt even after he was struck. Rajah Kolambu was fascinated
and noted that one man in such attire was worth 100 fighters. These newcomers
could help them win their battles. Thus, the rajah decided to seal their new
friendship. Afterwards, he performed the kasi kasi or blood compact ceremony
with Magellan on March 29, Good Friday.
Pursuant to Republic Act No. 2733 dated June 19, 1960 Barangay
Magallanes, Limasawa, Southern Leyte is the site of the first Christian mass in
the Philippines. In 1980 the National Historical Institute (NHI) sponsored a
workshop for historians to determine the site of the first mass in the
Philippines. They concluded it was Limasawa. They based their findings from the
evidence presented in 1800 by Carlo Amoretti, a conservator in Ambrosiana
Library in Milan. Amoretti said that Mazaua where Magellan landed in 1521 and
the island of Limasawa in the book written by Father Francisco Combes are one and
the same. This idea was supported by known writers in history, which include
Father Pablo Pastells, S.J., Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Jaime de Veyra, and
James Robertson.
Noted historian Dr. Sonia M. Zaide presented the evidence for Masao
rather than Limasawa as the site of the first recorded mass in the Philippines.
First, in all primary sources including the diary of Antonio Pigafetta, the
chronicler of Magellan's voyage, the name of the place was Mazaua. Limasawa has
four syllables and begins with another letter. Second, according to primary
records, the expedition traveled 20 to 25 leagues from Homonhon’s first landing
point. If they had been to Limasawa Island, the distance is only 14.6 leagues
or one-half of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua according
to Pigafetta was 35 leagues (140 miles). The distance from Limasawa to Cebu is
only 80 miles. Fourth, it was mentioned that the king came to their ship in a
balanghai. Butuan is now the site of at least nine excavated balanghai relics;
by contrast, Limasawa has no significant archaeological relics or balanghai
tradition. Fifth, the Western explorers got excited at the abundance of gold in
Mazaua, for that was the main currency at that time. Both archaeological relics
and the gold mines today attested to the abundance of gold in the Agusan
Valley.
The site of the first mass in the Philippines was first mentioned by
Maximilian Transylvanus in his De Moluccis... in 1523. He interviewed the
survivors of the Magellan expedition and noted that they landed in Messana (at
times written as Massana), where the mass was first officiated. Due to numerous
copies of De Moluccis in Europe, the Italian manuscript of Antonio Pigafetta
(the chronicler of the expedition) was deferred in printing.
In 1536, Gian Battista Ramusio also wrote a chronicle about the voyage
of Magellan based on the Pigafetta manuscript. He pointed out that it was in
Butuan where the first mass in the Philippines took place. When Father
Francisco Colin, S.J. wrote a book about the spread of Christianity in the
Philippines, he could not exactly determine the site of the first mass in the
archipelago. From the Ramusio version it was in Butuan, while from the writings
of Antonio de Herrera (based from accounts of Andres de San Martin) it was in
Mazaua.-Finally, Father Colin wrote that it was in Limasawa where the first
mass in the Philippines was officiated.
In 1667, Father Francisco Combes mentioned in his Historia de
Mindanao... description of the voyage of Magellan and his Armada de Molucca. He
mentioned the word Limasaua, which never existed in any primary source about
the Magellan expedition.
It was William Henry Scott who was able to identify that it was the
Ramusio version that first mentioned Mazaua in Butuan. From the findings of
Scott and Vicente C. de Jesus, they had come into conclusion that the inclusion
of Limasawa in the voyage of Magellan may be attributed to Colin (with his
Dimasaua) and Combes (with his Limasawa). For Scott, de Jesus and the NHI, the
eyewitness account of Gines de Mafra, the Spanish mariner should be considered
in determining the location of Mazaua. Mafra was the only navigator who reached
Mazaua twice, first in 1521 in the Magellan's expedition and in 1543 in the
Villalobos expedition.
Andres de San Martin gave Mafra some important documents before he was
killed by the warriors of Rajah Humabon in Cebu after the Battle of Mactan.
Martin was an astrologer and one of the finest mariners during the Renaissance.
He died in the Cebu massacre that took place on May 1, 1521. Mafra held the
documents given to him by Martin for five years.
These documents were confiscated by the Portuguese and were kept in the
Lisbon archives. Finally, the documents were transferred to Madrid at the lime
when Portugal became part of Spain (1580-1640).
Based on the Mafra accounts, from Homonhon, Magellan and his men
iiaveled westward, southwest to the tip of Seilani (Panaon) to avoid the
Northeast monsoon. (From Panaon, Limasawa is in the northwest direction).
According to Mafra, Mazaua has a circumference of 3-4 leagues, equivalent t:o
9-12 n.m., while Limasawa has a circumference of 2.0313 n.m.
Mafra mentioned that Magellan and his men were able to reach Mindanao.
Mazaua is 45 n.m. south of Surigao. The western part of the i .land is a
perfect harbor during the Northeast monsoon. Mazaua has two hilly areas,
Pinamangculan at Dalindingan, as drawn in the map of Pigafetta. Planted near
the foot of the hills were rice, coconut, and fruits. There was gold in the
area. Houses were described as stilted.
On Easter Sunday, March 31, 1521, a mass was held on Mazaua's shore
with Reverend Father Pedro de Valderrama officiating. At sundown, Magellan, in
the presence of Spaniards and Filipinos, planted a large wooden cross on the
summit of a hill overlooking the sea. He named the country the Islas de San
Lazaro.
On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with King Kolambu and the Spanish
and native fleets landed on Sugbu (now Cebu). On the same day, Humabon made a
blood compact with Magellan after the latter had won his trust and friendship.
Asked who would succeed him, Rajah Humabon told Magellan that he had no
sons, only daughters. His nephew who had married his daughter was therefore the
crown prince. Rajah Humabon added that parents were no longer honored in their
old age and instead their children commanded them. Magellan explained to the
Cebuano chieftain the Christian teaching about honoring one's parents. This
confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be baptized as a Christian.
On Sunday, April 14,1521, a mass on the shore of Cebu was held with
Rajah Humabon and his people attending the ceremony. After the mass, Magellan
planted a huge wooden cross and gave Queen juana, wife of Rajah Humabon, an
image of the Child Jesus as a gift. There were about 800 Filipinos who
participated in the mass and underwent ritual baptism. As for Humabon (renamed
Carlos), Magellan made him the king's representative in Cebu and promised to
unite the local chieftains under his authority. Magellan likewise tried to
impose Christianity and Spanish sovereignty on local chieftains.
Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the Spaniards, but not
Lapulapu, another chieftain of Mactan. Lapulapu's real name was Cali Pulacu as
written by Carlos Calao, a Chinese-Spanish poet in the 17th c< ntwry 111 his
poem, Que Dios Le Perdone (That God May Forgive Him). I his was a result of the
research of Prof. Guillermo Gomez-Rivera, a 1975 Zobel Prize awardee.
Lapulapu refused to accept the new political system and pay tribute. He
decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. To teach him a lesson, Magellan
invaded Mactan on April 27, 1521. He led an army of 60 steel- clad Spaniards in
three vessels and 1,000 Cebuano warriors in 30 boats. He told Rajah Humabon and
his men to stay on their boats, watch how the Europeans fight.
Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of Lapulapu and his men. The
Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish force with their spears and bamboo stakes.
They aimed their spears at the unshielded legs of the Europeans. The Spaniards
were forced to go back to their boats.
Magellan was wounded in the battle. A poisoned arrow hit his right leg
and then a bamboo spear struck his face. Lapulapu and his fighters pounced and
killed him. The remaining Europeans retreated and left the body of their
captain behind.
The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for the Spaniards for they
were not able to prove themselves better in combats. On May 1; the natives of
Cebu carried out the plan to massacre them. While the Europeans were attending
a banquet prepared for them by Rajah Humabon, the warriors attacked them.
Duarte Barbosa, Juan Serrano, and 27 other Spaniards were killed.
The remaining members of the expedition were forced to flee the islands
before the Cebuanos could kill them all. They burned the ship Conception for
lack of men to operate the vessel. With two ships left - Trinidad and Victoria,
they continued their voyage to Moluccas.
On November 8, 1521, they finally landed in Tidore, an island in
Moluccas. They were able to secure a rich cargo of spices. The survivors
decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de Espinosa, would sail back to Spain
by crossing the Pacific to Panama, while the Victoria, under Juan Sebastian del
Cano's command would sail via Cape of Good Hope, but on lower latitudes to
avoid the Portuguese.
The Victoria crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope
and finally reached San Lucar, Spain on September 6,1522, with only 18
survivors. The voyage around the world lasted 2 years, 11 months, and 16 days.
As for the crew of the San Antonio (the ship that had deserted the expedition),
they had been imprisoned until Elcano's return. They were tried and convicted.
Pigafetta's story of the expedition spread. Shortly thereafter, the
geographers adopted new dimensions of the earth and the wider scope of the
Southern Sea (Pacific Ocean). The voyage enhanced their knowledge about the
existence of othet inlands in the Pacific and the Philippines. It also
confirmed that the earth is round and that it is really possible to sail around
the world since the world's oceans are connected. The cargo of cloves sold for
such a high price that it was more than sufficient to pay for the expenses of
Magellan's expedition. As a reward, the Spanish Crown granted Elcano a proud
motto for his shield, Primus (. ircumdedisti Me (you circumnavigated me first).
In unwritten history, it was really an Asian who first circumnavigated
the world ahead of the Europeans. He is no other than Enrique of Malacca who
acted as interpreter for Magellan. From Malacca, he was able to join the voyage
of the Portuguese after he was taken by Magellan to be his aide, cruising
across the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and reached Portugal. When he
became part of the Magellan's expedition, he was able to sail from Spain via
Atlantic Ocean, reached the tip of South America iind across the Pacific Ocean
then finally returned to Asia, particularly the Philippines.
Magellan's expedition paved the way for Spain's expansion to the
Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of gold and spiritual
dispensation, the conquistadores took the risks of the journey.
The first post-Magellan expedition (1525), led by Captain Garcia Jofre
de Loaysa sailed with seven ships and 450 men. After crossing the Strait of
Magellan, the vessels were dispersed by a storm. Unfortunately, Loaysa got ill.
They served him broiled rat, the traditional treatment for constipation. He did
not recover. Eventually he died. His men failed to reach the Philippines.
Sebastian Cabot, son of Venetian explorer John Cabot, headed the second
expedition in 1526 with four ships and 250 men. They failed to find the Strait
of Magellan.
In 1527, Alvaro Saavedra Ceron, cousin of Hernando Cortes of Mexico,
together with 110 men constituted the first expedition to the Philippines from
the Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three ships were set out to investigate
what had happened to the two earlier expeditions and rescue any survivors. Only
one ship, the Florida, reached Surigao in Northeastern Mindanao but failed to
colonize.
They were able to rescue several survivors from the first two
expeditions in Tidore, Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the Florida attempted to
return to Spain but strong winds drove her back. Saavedra Ceron tried the
second and third time to sail against strong winds. He fell ill and died. His
successor also failed to make a return trip. Finally, they decided to surrender
to the Portuguese.
In 1542, King Charles I sent another expedition. This was to reassert
the claims of Spain to the islands, which is part of the Eastern Hemisphere.
Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the Eastern Hemisphere was reserved
to Portuguese colonization. However, with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, a new
demarcation line was fixed .it 297 1/2 leagues east of Moluccas. Portugal
gained the rights of ownership over all the lands on the west of the line,
while Spain gained the right of ownership over all the lands found on the east
of the line. Spain sold the Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold ducats
($630,000), which lay within the Portuguese sphere ot influence and claimed
ownership over the Philippines then known as Islas del Poniente (the Sunset
Islands). He instructed Ruy Lopez de Villalobos to command a fleet of six ships
and around 400 men. He exhorted Villalobos to avoid any of the Spice Islands in
their voyage to Islas del Poniente.
Villalobos reached Baganga Bay in Eastern Mindanao on February 2,1543
after three months of sailing. He named Mindanao Caesarea Caroli, or the
imperial island of Charles. Searching for food, they reached the southern
island of Sarangani, which Villalobos renamed Antonia in honor of Viceroy
Antonio de Mendoza of Mexico. Some of his men went as far as Leyte, which they
renamed Felipina, in honor of the future king Philip II of Spain. Later, the
name Felipinas was given to all the islands. Villalobos also failed to colonize
Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St. Francis Xavier, acclaimed as
the Apostle of the Indies.
King Charles T of Spain abdicated his royal crown after getting weary
of far ranging duties brought about by his scattered dominion. His son Philip
II succeeded as ruler of the Netherlands in 1555 and in Spain in 1556.
During the reign of King Philip II, Spain was at the height of its
power. He wrote to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him to prepare an
expedition for the conquest of the Philippines. The command of this expedition
was given to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1505-1572), a soldier, lawyer, and
administrator. Since the Mexican government was then in the brink of
bankruptcy, Legazpi spent his own resources to finance the expedition.
Legazpi and his fleet, consisting of four ships with 380 men, left
Natividad, Mexico, on November 19, 1564 (some say November 20, a Monday).
Besides royal officials and crew, five Augustinian friars joined the
expedition. Legazpi was accompanied by Father Andres de Urdaneta (survivor of
the Loaysa expedition), and Captain Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi's grandson),
Guido de Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de
Legazpi (Legazpi's son). The fleet stopped in Guam, and there they obtained
fresh water and supplies.
On February 13,1565, Legazpi and his men anchored near the island of
Cebu. Due to Cebuano opposition, they sailed to the neighboring islands and
landed in Samar. Legazpi made a blood compact with Urrao, a friendly chief, on
February 22. They proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young chieftain
named Bankaw.
Later, Legazpi landed in Bohol and befriended two native kings,
Sikatuna and Sigala. On March 16, 1565, Legazpi and Sikatuna made a blood
compact. A few days later, Legazpi and Gala did a similar pact.
On April 27, 156.5, I egnzpi .n rived in Cebu and hit the shore. Rajah
lupas and his Cebuano warriors challenged the enemy forces but were overpowered
by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned their houses and if treated to the
uplands.
The next day, April 28, one of Legazpi's men, a Greek sailor named
Mermeo (others say Juan de Camuz) discovered the image of the Sto. Nino in one
of the houses. Viewing it as a sign of God's approval, Legazpi named I he f
irst settlement Ciudad del Santissimo Nombre de Jesus (City of the Most I loly
Name of Jesus), in honor of the sacred image. The statue can be found m the
present Augustinian Church of the Holy Child.
The earliest Spanish settlement was in the form of a triangle. The i wo
sides face the sea and the third fronts the land. The settlement was urrounded
by fences. Wells were dug for stable water supply. A church for the Augustinian
Fathers was erected. In this church, the historic image of the Child Jesus was
kept.
One day, a soldier, Pedro de Arana, went out alone from the camp. He
was speared to death. Ln retaliation, a unit was sent to grab captives, one of
them a niece of Rajah Tupas of Cebu. Upon learning this, Legazpi sent her
nursemaid to inform Rajah Tupas that the hostages were free to go home, on the
condition that he had to come for a talk.
Tupas did not heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan the girl's
father came with six men. Tamuyan offered himself as a slave in place of his
daughter but Legazpi assured him the freedom of his daughter without making him
subservient to the Spaniards.
The father was stunned to see his daughter dressed as befitted her
rank. He knew that captives taken in war were not given noble treatment. Moved
by their kindheartedness, Tamuyan accepted Legazpi's friendship. He promised to
convince his brother Tupas to accept Spanish good will. After a few more days,
convinced that Legazpi was sincere with his words, Rajah Tupas accepted
Legazpi's friendship.
4. The Spanish Conquest of the Islands
Legazpi tried to win Rajah Tupas and the people of Cebu through the
policy of attraction, inviting them to return, rebuild their homes, and live in
peace with them. With the help of Cid Hamal (Sidamit), a Muslim Malay, Legazpi
succeeded. The Cebuanos paid yearly tribute to the king of Spain and recognized
him as their sovereign. Legazpi promised Spanish protection.
When Legazpi began on his conversion efforts, most Filipinos were still
practicing a form of polytheism, although some had converted to Islam. The
Augustinian missionaries were assiduously spreading the Christian faith. The
first Cebuano convert was Jandulaman, a widowed niece of Tupas, later on named
Isabel in honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi's deceased wife. After her baptism,
she married Master Andres, a Greek member of Legazpi's expedition. Fray Diego
Herrera officiated the wedding, the first Christian marriage on Philippine
soil.
Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the godfather. He
was named Felipe, in honor of Philip II. His son, Pinsuncan was likewise
baptized and was named Carlos. The natives followed the same.
In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food provisions in
Cebu. Meanwhile, he sent his grandson back to Mexico with his first reports to
the Spanish King. On the bank of the Panay River, the second Spanish settlement
was founded. Due to the continuing apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba and other
Augustinian missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi. Two chiefs of
Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became Christians.
In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo who arrived in Cebu
from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates who plundered upon
Panay's villages. With 30 Spaniards and several hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo
destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and Lubang (islets near Mindoro).
On May 8,1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and his men left Panay. With a
force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they explored the Pansipit River in
Batangas. Native volunteers who had already made friends with the Spaniards
joined Goiti's men to avenge the harm done to them by hostile neighboring
villages.
From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of the Pasig River a wall
protecting a port. He sent his interpreter ashore to invite the local chief to
a conference, which Rajah Matanda and his nephew Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman)
accepted.
Rajah Sulayman led Goiti to a house and they sealed their new alliance
with the traditional kasi kasi. The Maynilad chief was willing to befriend the
Spaniards but would not submit to Spanish sovereignty and pay tribute to the
Spanish king. This lack of trust led to an armed clash between them.
Goiti landed his 80 fighters against Sulayman's fort, (where Fort
Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery. Sulayman
defended his kingdom from the Spaniards who took the offensive. A bloody
hand-to-hand battle ensued until the Manilans turned their backs as flames
began to engulf their houses. Sulayman and his warriors retreated across the
river. Goiti and his men captured Maynilad on the 24th of May and seized some
cannons that Panday Pira had made for Sulayman.
After the battle, Goiti returned to Panay. He told Legazpi about the
rich kingdom of Maynilad, a trading center where Chinese, Borneans, Siamese,
and other foreign merchants engaged in. From thereon, Legazpi decided to
colonize Maynilad. He left Panay and reached Manila Bay in the middle of April
1571, with a stronger expedition consisting ot 27 vessels, 280 Spaniards, and
600 Visayan allies.
Lakandula, king of Tondo and Sulayman's uncle, realized that it was
useless to resist the Spanish forces. He welcomed Legazpi and persuaded his
nephew Sulayman to make peace with Legazpi. On May 19,1571, Legazpi took
possession of Maynilad in the name of King Philip II of Spain.
Bambalito, a Pampango warlord from Macabebe; wanted to resist the
Spanish forces in Maynilad. He conferred with Lakandula and Sulayman to support
his cause. The two former native rulers did not want to join him since they had
already made peace with Legazpi. However, a son and two nephews of Lakandula
and some of Sulayman's warriors joined his war camp in Navotas.
On June 3, 1571, Bambalito's more than 2,000 fighters in 40 caracoas
(boats) from Hagonoy, Macabebe, and other Pampanga villages sailed into
Bankusay's creek, off the north shore of Manila Bay. They fought Marshal
Goiti's forces in this furious naval battle. Bambalito perished at the height
of this bloody fight. His men were routed. The rest paddled frantically away.
Ten native boats were captured.
On June 24, 1571, the Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi
proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as the Manila's
FoundationDay). He called the city Nueva Castilla, because he had been told
that there had been an old fort or castle on the site. On the same day, the
city government was established with a cabildo or city council and a court.
Years later, King Philip II, by his Royal Decree of June 1,1574, named
Manila, Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever Loyal City) and
by his Royal Decree of March 20, 1596, conferred a beautiful coat-of- arms on
this city.
On August 20,1572, Legazpi, the first Spanish governor and adelantado
(title given to those who personally funded their expeditions) of the
Philippines, died of heart attack. Guido de La vezaris succeeded and stayed in
post until 1575.
Captain Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi, subdued the region along
Laguna de Bay; discovered the gold mines of Paracale across the mountains; and
pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572. He founded Villa Fernandina de Vigan in
honor of Prince Ferdinand, son of King Philip II who died at the age of four.
Ln recognition of Salcedo's military services, the Spanish Crown gave him
encomienda in llocos.
From Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of Luzon. In 1573, he conquered
Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos refused to yield to them. The
natives used their arrows against the Spanish forces, however they hurriedly
withdrew for their safety after Salcedo fired his guns.
The Philippines was a crown colony considering she was under Spanish
domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to 1821, the Philippines
was a dependency of Mexico. The Mexican viceroy, in the name of the Spanish
King, administered the country. After the independence of Mexico from Spain in
1821, the Philippines came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the
Overseas Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions of the
Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias).
The colonial code titled Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las
Indias (Compilation of Laws on Royal Lands in the Indies) popularly known as
Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) issued in 1680, was used by Spain to rule
its extensive possessions.
It was on November 16,1568 when King Philip II issued instructions to
Legazpi to establish cities and towns and create encomiendas to be distributed
to deserving soldiers, in the first three decades of Spanish rule, the
Philippines was divided into encomiendas. With a cross in one hand and a sword
in the other, the Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudal
system of administration. The word encomienda comes from the verb encomendar
meaning "to commend or to commit to one's care."
Originally, an encomienda was a feudal institution used, in Spain to
reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars of recover}' of
territory from the Moors. The earliest encomendergs in the West Indies were
delegated with the power to collect tribute and to use the personal services of
the inhabitants of their encomiendas.
This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Crown for the combined
purposes of rewarding deserving Spaniards and attracting others to settle in
the colonies. Permanent settlement of the Spanish soldiers assured the defense
of the colonies. This also facilitated the conversion of the natives to the
Catholic faith.
Encomienda in the Philippines was not a land grant. It was more of an
administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute from the natives and to
use the personal services of the King's vassals in the encomienda. The
encomendero undertook ways to look after the well-being of his people and to
educate them with Spanish norms of conduct. In the domain of relations, the
encomienda had been considered as a kind of benevolent paternalism. In reality,
the encomienda was looked upon by its beneficiaries as a pretense for slavery.
Tributes were collected in cash or in kind. From the total collection,
not exceeding one-fourth of this went to the encomendero and the rest to the
friars as well as the government. The cabeza de barangay (former datu) collected
the tribute and gave it to the encomendero.
The Laws of the Indies provided that the encomendero must not own a
house in the native settlements, within their encomiendas to avoid the
commission of abuses. C >ovenwr Gomez Perez Dasmariftas, as commanded by
King Philip 11, urged the encomenderos to reside near their wards to promote
the latter's welfare. However, this arrangement became an opportunity for the
encomenderos to enrich themselves. The unlawful inaction of numerous services
coupled with greed and cruelty made the lives of the natives miserable. The
early Spanish friars took the side of the exploited people because they saw
that the colonizers had failed to instruct their people in the Catholic
religion.
The national economy, founded upon the medieval concept of master cind
slave, paved for the introduction of a class of landed aristocracy, while the
broad masses lived in distress.
Haciendas and encomiendas are not the same though both were forms of
colonial appropriation. The demands or exactions of an encomendero were
incidental to his position as representative of the King, thus, he exacted
tribute and drafted labor. The hacendero on the other hand, under the fiction
of partnership (with the tenant as companion or kasama), had the right of inheritance
and free disposition of the land.
Because of the abuses perpetrated by the encomenderos, the encomiendas
were replaced by a system of provincial government. There were two types of
provincial administrations: the alcaldia-mayor or the province, where peace had
been established by the Spanish government placed under a civil official called
alcalde-mayor; and the corregimientos or territories that had not been
completely pacified under the charge of corregidores or politico- military
governors. Tomas de Comyn, a Spanish social scientist, nevertheless described
the office of the alcalde-mayor as a model of graft, corruption, and
inefficiency brought about by inexperienced men being assigned to govern the
provinces. Some of them had little or no background at all to execute their
varied responsibilities.
The province was divided into towns or pueblo, which were administered
by gobernadorcillos. The office of the gobernadorcillo was open to Filipinos.
This local position was at first occupied by pre-colonial chieftains and their
descendants and later elected by an electoral board composed of the outgoing
gobernadorcillo and twelve members of the principalia. The principalia (social
and political aristocracy) referred to the prominent land-owning and propertied
citizens who could read, write, and speak Spanish.
Each town had several villages or barangays placed directly under the
cabezas de barangay. This position remained an appointive office.
The king appointed the governor general and other colonial officials
administering the country. The governor general was the chief executive as well
as the commander-in-chief of the military forces in the colony. Aside from
this, he was also the vice-royal patron wherein he has the power to recommend
priests in parishes, and the authority to intervene in controversies between
religious authorities. The governor general could also reject or suspend the
implementation of any royal decree or law from Spain with his cumplase power,
if in his opinion, the conditions in the colony did not justify its
implementation.
The office of the governor general was oftentimes bought or granted as
a favor. Since it generally involved a short tenure of office, averaging two
years and ten months, and in the 19th century even shorter, the governor
general oftentimes became eager in accumulating wealth before his term of
office expired.
However, checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible through the
following: first, the Audiencia Real or Royal Audiencia established in 1583 to
act as the Supreme Court of the colony also served as advisory body to the
governor and audited the expenditures of the government; second, the
residencia, which was a judicial institution headed by the incoming governor
general to conduct a trial of an outgoing governor general and other Spanish
officials for the purpose of punishing those guilty of corruption, but the case
may be appealed to the King for clemency; third, the visitador-general, who was
the investigator sent by the King or an official dispatched by the Council of
Indies in Spain to check the behavior of the high officials in the colony;
fourth, the Archbishop and clergy who were appointed by the Pope upon the
recommendation of the King; and fifth, subordinate public officials and
influential private citizens.
The counterbalance efforts of the aforementioned nevertheless proved
ineffectual in reprimanding corrupt administrators, for it was quite easy for
them to bribe the officials conducting the investigation. They could even seek
for the revocation of the decisions given by the investigating officials
through political influence in the country or in Spain.
The local officials as well as the Spanish high officials became the
main instruments of "pacification." The subjugation of the natives
became complete after they have agreed to pay the tribute. One tribute
corresponds to one family, consisting of husband, wife, and minor children.
Half of the tribute has to be paid by an unmarried man or woman. One tribute is
equivalent to eight (8) reales or one peso. It may be paid in money or in kind
like rice, honey, corn, and the like. In 1851, it was increased to 12 reales or
one peso and a half, in 1884, the cedula tax replaced the tribute.
Exempted from paying the tribute were as follows: incumbent
gobernadorcillos, cabezas and their families, government employees, soldiers
with distinguished service, descendants of Lakandula, a few other native
chieftains, choir members, sacristans, porters of the churches, and government
witnesses.
Encomenderos often had to send soldiers to collect the tribute by
force. Nonpayment of tribute meant torture or imprisonment. Sometimes houses
were burned or looted by them? soldiers as punishment for the natives'
defiance. Other natives just fled to the mountains to escape punishment. The
Filipinos hated the tribute for it was a symbol of subjugation to Spain.
Likewise, it resulted to Spanish abuses especially by tribute collectors.
Opposition to colonial authority became quite difficult. Although the
Spaniards constituted a small number in the country, they had conscripted
natives from different regions to put down revolts in other regions to remain
in power.
Polo or forced labor instituted in 1580 was another form of pacifying
the natives. Male Filipinos between 16 to 60 years of age rendered manual
service for the country for the purpose of building ships, churches, roads, and
other forms of infrastructure.
The polista or worker has to work 40 days a year in the labor pool. In
1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be excluded from the polo,
one has to payfalla (exemption fee), which only a few Filipinos could actually
pay. The chieftains and their eldest sons were also excused from forced labor.
Polo led to the abandonment of the fields, separation from families or
homes, as well as illness and death for some. The alcaldes often drafted
hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for woodcutting and then pocketed
the money, which must be paid for the polistas.
Bandala, which was instituted in the first half of the 17th century by
Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera was another way to overpower the
Filipinos. This refers to the assignment of annual quotas to each province for
the compulsory sale of products to the government. Due to lack of funds, the
government issued promissory notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the
part of the government meant seizure of products. The system meant virtual
confiscation of products for the government that was usually out of money;
promissory notes were first given in exchange for the goods.
The political condition in the Philippines was worsened with the union
of Church and State. The friars, like the government officials, exercised
political, economic, and other non-spiritual powers. They controlled the
educational system as well as the collection of taxes and the conscription of
natives into the army. They even controlled municipal elections and censored
plays and reading materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference
in the country that in the 19th century, Filipino propagandists demanded their
expulsion.
5. Towards the Hispanization of the Natives
The Spaniards integrated into the Filipino society their religion,
language, customs, arts, and sciences. The Church and State inseparably carried
out Spanish policy in the country. When the Spaniards came into the country,
they destroyed the carved idols out of wood and stone because these artworks
were regarded as abominable to the faith.
To a great extent, the Spanish Catholic missionaries were able to
remodel Filipino culture and society. The Spanish authorities clustered the
Filipino population into village settlements where they could more easily be
instructed. Since most secular colonial officials had no intention of living
far from home, the friars took on the roles as the King's representatives and
interpreters of government policies in the countryside. Spanish urbanization
was centered in the city of Manila, within a walled city called Intramuros.
Infrastructure showing Spanish domination in the country, such as
massive colonial churches, convents, schools, roads, bridges, and the bahay na
bato at kahoy (Antillian stone and wood houses) were constructed. Initially,
buildings during the Spanish era were of thatch and bamboo. After accidental
fires that hit some of them, stones, wood, bricks, and tiles were used for
construction.
Structurally, the bahay na bato at kahoy also known as bahay na mestiza
(or mixed, because wood and stone were blended together), perpetuated the
features of the pre-Hispanic bahay na kubo. The ground floor was used for
storage and for parking vehicles. Habitation took place upstairs with specific
rooms for guests (azotea and sala), dining (comedor), cooking (cocina), and
sleeping (cuarto).
The Spaniards imposed the feudal system and created towns and estates
by converging the people through reduction, referring to the resettlement of
inhabitants in Spanish-style poblaciones - or at least - bajo de las campanas
(within hearing distance of the church bells).
The Spanish model for a poblacion (town center) was organized around a
rectangular plaza, with the church (the most important structure of the plaza
complex) and convent on one side, bounded by the tribunal or municipio, and by
the houses of Spanish officials and principales (elite). The presence of
principalia residences in the plaza complex reflected the existence of
socioeconomic ascendancy.
Spanish society had always stressed "purity" of blood in indicating
societal rank. At the top of the social pyramid were the espanoles, with both
Spanish parents, which included the espanoles peninsulares (born in the Spanish
peninsula) and the espanoles insulares or Filipinos (born in the colony).
Below the espanoles were the mestizos and mestizas - the children of an
espanol and an indio or india. The term mestizo referred to the mestizos de
sangley or Chinese mestizos, while Spanish mestizos were called mestizos de
espanol.
Constituting the majority of the population were the indios or indios
naturales, pertaining to the natives of the Philippines without Spanish or Chinese
ancestry. Generally, the Spanish colonizers believed that the indios k could
not comprehend more than the basic knowledge.
The ceremonial splendour of the Roman Catholic Church aroused the
admiration of the natives. More representatives of various religious orders
such as the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits came to the
Philippines after Legazpi's expedition. The first bishop of Manila was Fray
Domingo de Salazar, a member of the Order of Preachers (OP). He was succeeded
by Fray Ignacio de Santibanez, a Franciscan priest who became the first
Archbishop of Manila.
The territory of the old Archdiocese of Manila covered the civil provinces
of Nueva Ecija, the Southern half of Tarlac, Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan,
Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, Laguna, and the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque.
Pope Clement VIII on August 26,1595, established the Diocese of Nueva Segovia
in Lal-lo, Cagayan. In the same year, the Diocese of Nueva : Caceres in
Camarines Sur and the Diocese of Cebu (cradle of Christianity ' in the
Philippines) were also established. Consequently, the missionaries learned
local dialects and introduced the Roman alphabet.
By the 16lh century, there were Filipinos like Tomas Pinpin (the first
Filipino printer), who became conversant with the Spanish language. He wrote
the first published Tagalog book titled Librong Pag-aaralan nang manga Tagalog
nang uicang Castila (Book that the Tagalogs Should Study to Learn Spanish) for
the benefit of unlettered Filipinos in the Spanish language.
Basic education was rendered by parochial schools, established
primarily for religious instruction. The first one was established in Cebu. In
1582, Archbishop Domingo de Salazar ordered that every town was to have one
school for boys and one for girls. Attendance was made compulsory. Parents paid
the teachers' salaries. The subjects taught were catechism, reading and writing
in the dialect, music, the rudiments of arithmetic, and trades and industries.
Education was still in the early stage of development during the
Spanish period. Even by the late 19th century, the Spanish language was still
unknown to a great majority. They were literate in their own native dialects.
The Spanish aristocracy tried to distinguish themselves from the indios with
the use of language and level of education.
Higher education was established exclusively for the Spaniards and
Filipinos, referring to those born in the colony to Spanish parents. Colleges
and universities were closed to indios. (The natives were only allowed in these
institutions after 200 years of colonial rule).
The Jesuits in Manila founded the first college for boys in 1589. It
was originally called College of Manila (for the scholastics), and later
changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621, it was elevated to the rank of a
university by Pope Gregory XV and was named University of San Ignacio. However,
this school was closed in I768 when the Jesuits were expelled from the country.
In 1601, the Colegio de San Jose also under the Jesuits, was established.
In 1611, Fray Miguel de Benavides, the third archbishop of Manila
established the Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santissimo Rosario, later renamed
Universidad de Santo Tomas (in 1645 by Pope Innocent X).
The Dominican order that administered Colegio de Santo Tomas also
established the Colegio de San Juan de Letran to take care of orphaned Spanish
boys.
The girls were also given special education. Schools were of two kinds:
the colegio, which is a regular school for girls; and the beaterio, a combined
school and nunnery. The first college for girls in the Philippines was the
College of Santa Potenciana (1594). After the school ceased its operations, the
students transferred to College of Santa Isabel, now the oldest existing
college for girls in the country. The institution was originally built to care
for orphaned Spanish girls. Eventually, it became an exclusive school for the
daughters of affluent Spaniards.
In 1621, the Franciscan nuns established the Real Monasterio de Santa
Clara (now St. Claire Convent of Manila), the first nunnery in the Philippines.
In 1694 the Beaterio de la Compania de Jesus, which was directed under the
Jesuits was founded by Mother Tgnacia del Espiritu Santo, a Filipina nun. This
was a school established to accommodate Filipino girls, the indias. Mother
Ignacia's spirit of poverty, humility, penance, confidence in God and charity
became the distinguishing mark of the beatas (resident pupils). The beatas had
extended their apostolate to education. The beaterio has developed into the
Congregation of the Religious of the Virgin Mary (R.V.M.) of the 20th century.
- Primary education consisted of courses in reading, writing,
arithmetic, religion; geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish language,
vocal music; and agriculture for boys and needlework for girls. The girls were
taught basic education, as well as religion, needlework, painting, and music.
Academic reforms were later on implemented, after the Spanish
government conceded to its growing demand. The Educational Decree, dated
December 20, 1863 introduced a system of public education that opened
opportunities to Filipinos for higher learning. It ordered the establishment of
an educational system consisting of elementary, secondary, and collegiate
levels. It also provided for the establishment of normal schools to train
teachers. The Board of Public Instruction was likewise created to supervise the
schools. The decree also provided for the use of Spanish as the language of
instruction, starting at the elementary level.
The Escuela Normal (Normal School) for the training of male teachers
for elementary instruction, was delegated to the Jesuits. It was inaugurated in
1865. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior, which trained teachers of
secondary courses.
Schools for the arts were also built aside from these regular schools.
Archbishop Juan A. Rodriguez founded the Escuela de Tiples in 1743. The
institution was to provide elementary education and offer courses in vocal and
instrumental performance. In the late 19th century, the school was able to
pattern its plan of study after the Conservatory of Music in Madrid.
Damian Domingo founded the Academy of Fine Arts, the first school in
painting in Manila in 1820. With this, he was called the "Father of
Filipino Painting."
The Academia de Dibujo y Pintura (Academy of Drawing and Painting) was
founded in 1824. Some of its students were sent by the government to pursue
higher studies in Madrid, Rome, and Paris.
In the 19th century, various technical schools were established like the
School of Mercantile Accounting and Modern Languages, patterned after the
Commercial School in Barcelona. Commerce was introduced as a three-year
vocational course, with the degree of perito to be earned by the student after
studying.
Mechanics and other vocational courses were offered in secondary
instruction leading to the bachillerato en artes. After finishing the course,
the students could take examinations for the title of perito mecanico
(mechanical expert). Surveying was also introduced as a vocational course,
which conferred the degree of perito agrimensor to its graduates.
It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opened upon orders of the
queen. It was placed under the commander of the fleet. After four years, the
student was to board a ship. The degree of piloto de marina mercante was to be
given after the training.
The seeds of vocational education were sown by the early Spanish
missionaries who taught the natives better methods of farming, the cultivation
of foreign plants like indigo, corn, cotton and wheat, and various crafts like
printing, carpentry, masonry, and dyeing.
The early missionaries were also the first to establish a printing
press in the Philippines. Books were being printed by xylographic method, using
engraved wood blocks. The earliest book printed was the Doctrina Christiana en
lengua española y tagala (1593), written by Fray Juan de Oliver. This
catechetical book sought to explain the importance of Christ, chastity, and
devotion to God in the vernacular.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the pasion was the prevalent form
in print. Written in verse and chanted during Lent, it depicted the life and
passion of Jesus Christ. The first Tagalog pasion was written by Caspar Aquino
de Belen. It was published in 1704. The second written pasion titled Casaysayan
ng Pasiong Mahal ni Jesucristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-alab ng Sinomang
Babasa (The Story of the Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ that Should
Inflame the Heart of the Reader, circa 1814) was preferred over the lirst one.
It was also known as Pasyong Genesis. This version was edited by Father Mariano
Pilapil (circa 1758-circa 1818) and published by the Imprenta de Santo Tomas.
It was later translated into several native dialects.
During the first half of the 19,h century Jose de la Cruz was the most
prominent poet in the oral tradition. He was said to have written many literary
pieces in elegant Tagalog language. Among them were: Doce Pares de Francia;
Bernardo Carpio; and, Adela at Florante. He was popularly known as Huseng Sisiw
because whenever zealous writers approached him for guidance in their verses,
he required them to bring sisiw (chick) as payment.
Pedro Bukaneg, the blind poet who wrote the popular Ilocano epic,
Lam-Ang, was hailed as the "Father of llocos Literature." Among the
Tagalogs, Francisco Balagtas (later dubbed as the Prince of Tagalog Poets)
became popular with his poetical pieces particularly, Florante at Laura.
Momentous feasts and events like the arrival of a new Spanish official
also meant stage presentations. The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu in
1598, a comedia written by Vicente Puche. It was performed in honor of Msgr.
Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's first bishop. Christian victory over the Muslims was
depicted with a linambay (moro-moro in Tagalog) in 1637.
At the end of the 17th century, the first theater was established in
Intramuros, Manila, known as Teatro Comico. At the turn of the 19th century,
the zarzuela, a Spanish one-act opera with satirical theme became popular in
the country. These stage plays were performed at fiestas where townfolks
eagerly watch so as not to miss the gala presentation.
In the field of music, the Sampaguita composed by Dolores Patemo became
popular. The first music teacher to win distinction in Philippine history was
Geroriimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan missionary.
In 1811, the first newspaper in the country appeared in Manila, which
was the Del Superior Govierno (Of the Supreme Government) with Governor General
Manuel Gonzalez de Aguilar as editor.
In the field of science, the first scientists in the Philippines were
the Spanish friars. Fr. Manuel Blanco, the "Prince of Botanists"
wrote Flora de Filipinas, which was published in 1837. This book identified
1,200 kinds of plants in the country. The first sundials in the country were
built in 1871 at Tagudin, llocos Sur by Fr. Juan Sorolla, a Spanish
Augustinian.
Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced the first iron printing press in
the Philippines in 1847. He also initiated the use of better paper such as
papel de kilo (linen paper), instead of rice paper and Chinese paper. George
Oppel, a German, introduced lithography in the country in 1858.
Transported through galleons (huge Spanish trading ships) were plants
like corn, cassava, sweet potato, cotton, maguey, indigo, achuete, tobacco,
cacao, peanut, tashew nut, pineapple, avocado, pepper, squash, tomato, lima
bean, turnip, and eggplant. The Spaniards also brought to the Philippines some
animals like horses, cow, sheep, and goats.
The galleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes via Pacific Ocean to
Acapulco, Mexico were brought into the Philippines by Asian traders from China,
Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other nearby places. Manila
became an important port for the galleons. The galleon would be carrying minted
coins or silver bullion and products of Mexico on its return.
The galleon trade was a government monopoly, however, the Chinese
merchants outnumbered the Spanish and Filipino traders in selling their goods
mainly silk textiles and porcelain to Mexico. The Chinese formed an
economically important community in Manila by the 1590s but years later were
given restrictions. When the galleon trade ended in 1815, Philippine trade was
opened to the world, but links to Latin America weakened.
The financing of the galleon trade was made possible primarily through
the Obras Pias, the earliest banking institution in the country. The funds were
donated by rich people for charitable purposes. Later, the friars had the funds
given as loans to businessmen at various rates of interest. The friars were
also able to borrow from die government. Unfortunately, they were not able to
pay back the government resulting in the bankruptcy of the national treasury.
In 1717, Governor General Fernando Manuel de Bustamante compelled the
friars to return the money they borrowed from the government. This however,
only resulted to his death in 1719 in the hands of an angry mob, agitated by
his stringent rules against the members of the church.
The Spanish government also attempted to introduce economic reforms in
the country, through the efforts of some enlightened officials like Governor
General Jose Basco y Vargas. Governor Basco implemented series of reforms not
only to promote economic development but also to make the country independent
of subsidy from Mexico. He envisioned large-scale production of silk, cotton,
tobacco, spices, and sugarcane; the application of scientific knowledge to
Philippine agriculture and industry and the growth of foreign trade on the
basis of Philippine natural resources.
Governor General Basco (1778-87) founded the Sociedad Economica de los
Amigos del Pais (Economic Society of the Friends of the Country) in Manila on
April 26, 1781. The society helped much in the agricultural development of the country.
In 1824, importation of martines (birds) from China was made to fight the
locusts that were destroying Philippine crops. The society also offered prizes
for best agricultural projects and techniques developed. In 1853, Candido Lopez
Diaz, a Filipino, was awarded for his invention of a machine cleaning hemp
fibers.
In 1861, the society established the tirst .igi n ultural school in
Manila. It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy, and mulberry
trees. Large tracts of land in Camarines were planted of mulberry trees to feed
silkworms.
Upon Governor Basco's recommendation, King Charles III issued a royaT
decree in 1780 establishing a government monopoly in the Philippines that took
effect in 1782. Thus, the government established monopolies on tobacco, wine,
gunpowder, playing cards, and among others.
The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial government but
resulted to the abuses of some crooked Spanish officials. They often cheated
the farmers in the payment of their produce. The farmers on the other hand
cultivated more than what was required and hid their excess tobacco to be sold
in the black market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera
abolished the monopoly. Private firms took control of the tobacco business.
Governor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina succeeded Governor Basco.
His first official act was the demolition of nipa houses in the city of Manila,
which to him was an ugly sight and can even cause fire. He also ordered the
abolition of indulto de comercio (license to trade), which gave the alcalde
mayor (provincial governor) the privilege to control the prices of goods in his
province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were also abolished.
He established the minting of money in the country to prevent the outflow of
gold.
In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de Mas, an economist, wTas sent by Spain to the
Philippines to make an economic survey of the country. In his report, he made
the following recommendations: first, the opening of more Philippine ports to
world trade; second, the encouragement of Chinese immigration in the country to
stimulate agricultural development; and third, the abolition of the tobacco
monopoly.
The opening of the Philippines to world trade resulted to a great
demand for its products in the world market. This brought about the need of
machinery for massive production. The first steam machine for hulling rice was
introduced in 1836 by Eulogio de Otaduy. Then a few years later, Nicholas
Loney, a British merchant, introduced the first steam machine for hulling sugar
in Negros.
The end of the galleon trade together with Spain's involvement in the
Napoleonic Wars (1799-1858), reduced the large-scale importation of fabrics.
This became beneficial to the local weaving industry.
The most important materials used in weaving were cotton, abaca, silk,
and pina. Sinamay or pinukpok is made from beaten abaca fibers, which were
extensively woven in Camarines, Albay, Panay, Bohol, and Samar. Finest of the
fabrics were usually woven in combination. Nipis (sheer) is from pure silk in
combination with cotton and abaca (from the trunk of wild banana). A particular
type of Nipis produced in lloilo came to be called jusi (from the taw silk
fibers brought in by Chinese traders). Since weaving of the riipis requires a
great amount of skill, patience and time, the cloth was priced highly. Also
popular during the Spanish era was the pina fabric (from the leaves of the wild
pineapple). Batangas was known for its kulambo (gauze mosquito net). The
Northern Luzon provinces produced a type of cloth known as abel lloco.
As early as in the 1700s the Spaniards brought in their dressy shirt
(tucked out) with standing collar. Woven embroidery of the fabric is for
display and for some, due to health reasons. With the sinamay or pinukpok
material, skin irritation at times developed because of the material's fibers and
the country's warm temperature. The trousers used with shirt were loose and
required the use of slippers or shoes.
In the early 19th century, the Augustinian missionaries introduced
spinning wheels and more sophisticated looms in Panay Island, which greatly
developed the local weaving industry of the place.
In time, needlework developed in Ermita, Malate, and Sta. Ana, Manila.
Finished articles were expensive, primarily because of embroidery. Elaborate
works of embroidery were sewn on hemlines, sleeves, scarves, handkerchiefs, and
on children's clothes. With skilled labor, this cottage industry gained
popularity.
The Christianization of the Filipinos was the most lasting legacy of
the Spanish missionaries. The Spaniards converted much of the Philippines to
Christianity except Mindanao and Sulu. The use of Philippine dialects by the
early missionaries facilitated the teaching of the Gospel. The striking
resemblances between the pre-colonial religion and Catholicism have made the
latter acceptable to the local inhabitants.
During the Spanish period, no building structure was allowed to rise
higher than the church's bell tower. The highest part inside the church was the
retablo. At the center and above the altar table was the tabernacle for storing
the sacred hosts.
Many holy images arid their corresponding devotions have originated
from New Spain (now Mexico). Some of the popular images are the following:
statue of Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage (also known as Our Lady of
Antipolo); the Black Nazarene venerated at the Quiapo Church, and Our Lady of
Guadalupe.
Jesus Christ has been represented in various forms. As a child he is
depicted as the Santo Niño, either placed on a manger or standing as the
Sovereign King with a globe and a scepter. On His way to Calvary, he is
presented as the Nazareno. While placed inside a sepulcher, the image is called
Santo Entierro. The image of the resurrected Christ is known as Cristo
Resucitado. Christ on the cross known as the Santo Cristo is regarded as the
most important symbol of the Church. It is to be placed at the center of every
altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central pinnacle of the church's
retablo (decorated medieval altar).
Family life during the Spanish period focused on the Christian way of
life. The father although acknowledged as the head of the family, considered
the sentiments of his wife on family matters. The mother was regarded as the
custodian of the family. She usually acted as the first teacher of the
children.
Families became more considerately close since parents and children did
pray together, particularly during the Angelus, in saying the rosary and before
each meal. They went to church together to hear the Sunday mass as well as
other masses, marking important religious events like Christmas, Holy Week, and
the feast day of the patron saint of the town.
Owing to the influence of Christianity, social welfare was also
promoted in the country. The sick and the needy were given care through medical
services, juan Clemente founded the first hospital in Manila in 1578. Out of
this hospital originated the present San Juan de Dios Hospital and the San
Lazaro Hospital.
In 1594, the Santa Hermandad y Cofradia de la Misericordia (Holy
Brotherhood and Confraternity of Mercy) was organized for charitable works and
services for the needy. The first regular orphanage, Real Hospicio de San Jose,
was established in 1810.
The religious calendar stemmed from celebrations in reverence of Jesus
Christ and Mother Mary and in the feasts of saints. Every December 8, the Feast
of the Immaculate Conception, which solemnizes the dogma of Mary being
conceived without original sin is celebrated through eucharistic rites and a
grand procession.
The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ on December
25. The joyous celebration begins on December 16 with the start of Misa de
Aguinaldo (Mass of the gift), popularly known as simbang gabi, a novena dawn
mass to prepare for the midnight mass on Christmas Eve called Misa de Callo
(Mass of the Rooster). A religious play called panunuluyan, which reenacts the
search by Joseph and Mary for an inn has also been observed in some parishes
prior to the midnight mass. After the mass, families gather for the traditional
noche buena, a feast usually of ham, cheese, and other native delicacies.
The passion and death of Our Lord is solemnly remembered during Lenten
season, particularly during Holy Week from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. People
chant the pasion or attend the cenaculo (religious play depicting the life,
sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus Christ). In Easter Sunday, the traditional
salubong commemorates Christ's first meeting with His mother.
In Marinduque, the Moriones Festival is held during the Holy Week. This
glittering pageantry rei .ills the story of Longinus, the Roman centurion who
was converted to Christianity. In this colorful parade, the participants wear
masks and costumes portraying the Roman era. A typical Moriones mask bears a bearded
Caucasian face with large arrogant eyes and an open mouth.
The tradition of self-flagellation during the Lenten season was
introduced in the Philippines from Mexico. During those times, public penance
was practiced in Spain and the rest of Europe. But in Mexico and i n the
Philippines self-flagellation was primarily done to carry out a promise (panata
in Tagalog) to the Lord.
Every town established during the Spanish period has a patron saint,
whose fiesta is celebrated annually with masses, procession, fireworks,
feasting, music, and often, theatrical presentations. Towns or barrios named
after San Jose (St. Joseph) hold their fiesta on March 19. Those named Sta.
Monica celebrate every May 4. Those named after Sta. Rita de Casia commemorate
her feast day on May 22. Those named San Juan (St. John the Baptist) observe
his feast on June 24.
Every May 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is held in honor
of San lsidro Labrador, the patron saint of farmers. The word
"pahiyas" comes from the root word hiyas, which gives a notion of a
joyous shower of blessings or treasures. Elaborate decorations like rice wafer,
fruits, and vegetables are placed on houses, as an outpouring of creativity and
thanksgiving for good harvest.
In Pulilan, Bulacan, the Carabao Festival is also held in honor of San
lsidro ever)' May 15. Work animals mostly colorfully groomed and shaved
carabaos are led on parade on the streets of Pulilan to genuflect or kneel in
front of the church.
Also in Bulacan, the Obando Festival is in honor of the town's patron
saints - Nuestra Senora de Salambao, San Pascual Baylon, and Santa Clara, which
begins on the 17,h of May. It is a three-day celebration. Pilgrims attending
the festival usually wear straw hats adorned with quills, flowers, ribbons or
paper and join the dance to appeal for heavenly intercession for a future
spouse in the case of singles or a child in the case of childless couples.
Farmers also attend to thank the Virgin of Salambao for bounteous harvests.
Bicol's grandest celebration is the annual Penafrancia Festival where a
fluvial procession is made in honor of Our Lady of Penafrancia every 17th of
September in Naga, Camarines Sur. Culminating the final novena prayers is a
Gregorian Mass, in thanksgiving to God and in honor of Our Lady.
During the entire month of May, parishes annually hold the Flores de
Mayo (Flowers of May), where devotees offer flowers every day at the church
altar to honor the Blessed Mother. Before the month ends, the Santa Cruz de
Mayo or the Santacruzan procession is held to commemorate the finding of the I
loly Cross by Empress Helena and Emperor Constantine. The participants called
sagalas play various characters found in Christian history, which include the
Reyna Elena. This festive celebration ends inside the church.
Solemn rites and celebrations were followed by dining and merrymaking
among families and friends. During these occasions, Spanish culinary
specialties like paella (a mixture of rice, chicken and shellfish), arroz
valenciana (rice and chicken cooked in coconut milk), and lengua (sauteed
ox-tongue) were usually served in feast tables.
6. Chinese in the Philippines
During the Spanish times, the Chinese were called Sangleys, derived
from the terms xiang and ley meaning "traveling merchant." Since
Legazpi and those who succeeded him favored Sino-Philippine trade, more trading
junks from China came to the Philippines annually, bringing their merchandise
like silk, textiles, and porcelain wares.
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the Chinese had already established
their settlements in the country. The Chinese, who were able to learn the
styles and techniques from native craftsmen, predominantly occupied the
manufacturing of carriages, stone masonry, printing, shoemaking, and tailoring.
In Manila, they were forced to live outside tine city walls. The place
was called Parian, erected in 1581 by Governor General Gonzalo Ronquillo de
Penalosa. Outside Manila, many Chinese engaged in retail trade, while others
invested in land. Many Chinese settled in the Philippines after the Taiping
Rebellion (1851-1864) in China. A number of them were converted to Catholicism
and married Filipina women. Their descendants, called Chinese mestizos, were
formed.
During the Spanish period, the Chinese mestizos were able to acquire
land from peasants through the pacto de retroventa. This was also known as
pacto de retro, which was a contract under which the borrower who conveyed his
land to the lender could repurchase it for the same amount of money that he had
received. Generally, the borrower could no longer pay the sum of money; thus,
the transfer of land ownership to the lender has been completed.
The Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable services to the
community but still they were not given fair treatment by the Spanish authorities,
owing to their constructive role in the economic development of the country. To
discourage Chinese immigration to the country, the Spanish authorities taxed
them heavily. They were also taxed twice the amount required of Filipinos
because they earned more. The Spanish government encouraged the immigrants to
become agricultural laborers. Soon, the Chinese gained position in the
cash-crop economy in the provincial level.
The Chinese mestizo could legally change his classification through the
dispensa de ley, which involved the transfer of his family to the tax register
of Indios. The Chinese compound name was combined into a single surname, e,g.,
Tan Hwang Co to Tanjuangco. He wore the camisa de chino and the top hat, a
status symbol of the native principalia.
The first Chinese threat to Spanish rule in the Philippines was the
mission of Lim-Ah-Hong. He appeared in Manila Bay on November 29, l'v I with 62
war junks and shiploads of farming and household goods. He was in search of a
kingdom.
In Paranaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of 600 men under Sioco,
his Japanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574, Sioco attacked Bagummbayan,
killed Marshal Martin de Goiti, and assaulted the city of Manila. But the
Spanish forces aided by Filipinos, drove the invaders back to their ships.
Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the second attack in Manila. This time, Juan
Salcedo has already arrived from Vigan upon knowing the previous attack in
Manila. He succeeded Goiti as marshal.
Sioco died in action while Lim-Ah-Hong retreated with his ships and men
northward, to Pangasinan. He established a colony at the mouth of Agno River.
However, Lim-Ah-Hong's colony in the Philippines did not last long. Marshal
Salcedo with a fleet of 1,500 Filipinos and 250 Spaniards sailed from Manila to
Pangasinan and destroyed Lim-Ah-Hong's stronghold in Lingayen Gulf.
Lim-Ah-Hong evaded capture. He managed to escape through a man-made
canal and fled to the hills and mingled with the Igorots and Tingguians. Then,
he returned to China and reorganized his forces but he was defeated by the
Chinese viceroy in Fookien in a naval battle of Palahoan. He fled to Thailand
but was not permitted to stay there. He went to other kingdoms, but for fear of
China, these kingdoms did not welcome him. He wandered from one place to
another, till his whereabouts could no longer be traced.
The first Chinese revolt was brought about by the deep-seated suspicion
of the Spaniards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese mandarins arrived in Manila.
They wanted to see Chin-San (Mountain of Gold), which was believed to be in
Cavite. The Spaniards looked at it as a plausible scheme. After the mandarins
had left, the Spaniards strengthened the city defenses, which alarmed the
Chinese residents.
In Parian, a secret plot to overthrow the Spaniards was planned under
the leadership of Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant. They attacked Tondo and
Quiapo on October 3,1603 by setting the buildings on fire and by killing the
inhabitants. Don Luis Dasmarinas (former governor general) and Captain Tomas
Bravo de Acuna (nephew of Governor General Acuña) led the retaliatory attacks
but they were ambushed.
However, the Chinese failed to capture the city walls because of the
Spanish, Filipino and Japanese joint forces, including the friars as well as
the residents of the area. The Chinese rebels retreated to the hills of San
Pablo, Laguna, but they were defeated by the forces led by Cristobal de Axqueta
Monchaca.
In 1639, the Chinese revolted for the second time. This was caused by
Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera's order forcing the Chinese to
work in Calamba, Laguna. The Chinese denounced the abuses committed by Spanish
tribute collectors. On November 19,1639, hostilities began in Calamba and it
spread to other towns killing several Spanish friars, including the alcalde
mayor of Laguna, Marcos Zapata.
In the early part of 1662, Koxinga (real name was Cheng Chengkung) was
able to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He sent Fr. Victorio Ricci to Manila, to
extend his directive for tribute from the Spanish authorities. This infuriated
Governor General Manrique de Lara and thus, he prepared to drive out all
Chinese residents in the country.
The Chinese retaliated by burning the district of Santa Cruz. Many
Filipinos and Spaniards were killed. An army of 4,000 Pampanguenos under
Francisco Laksamana came to the rescue and defeated the rebels who had fled to
the mountains of Taytay and Antipolo.
The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was planned by Tingco, a Chinese
ex-convict. He was desperate to raise money to return to China. He tried to
burn the city of Manila and to loot the churches. His group of rebels attacked
in August, starting at the Parian, in the house of Don Diego Vivien, the
alcalde mayor. The government forces arrived and routed them. Tingco was caught
and executed.
To put an end to possible Chinese insurrection in the country, the
governor in 1729 ordered that all unbaptized Chinese in Manila were to reside
in the Parian. The baptized ones had to reside in Binondo and Sta. Cruz.
However, when the British came and occupied Manila in 1762 the Chinese
collaborated with them to fight the Spaniards. The Chinese in Manila as well as
the Chinese in Guagua, Pampanga secretly plotted to massacre the Spaniards on
Christmas Eve of December 24,1762. One of the plotters happened to reveal the
plot to his Filipina sweetheart. The latter relayed the news to Fr. Jose Salas,
the parish priest of Mexico, Pampanga.
Governor General Simon de Anda who was informed of this plot, led his
forces to Guagua on December 20 and crushed the Chinese rebels. This bloody
confrontation was considered in Philippine history as the "Red
Christmas."
7. More Europeans In the Islands
Towards the end of the I6,h century, some European nations began the
attempts to establish settlements in the Philippines. In 1579, English mariners
including Sir Francis Drake started to harass Spanish shipping. I he Dutch also
began to raid some islands in the Philippines. They likewise assaulted Chinese,
Portuguese, and Japanese trading vessels.
In 1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capable of seizing
control of the spice trade from the Portuguese. As Portugal's ally, Spain
committed its forces in the Philippines to help avert Dutch assaults. Thus, the
Dutch were drawn to the Philippines to weaken the Spanish fleet stationed in
the colony. Their base of operations was Formosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval squadron
attacked various places in the Philippines from 1600-1747, which discouraged
Chinese and Japanese traders from entering the colony.
In February of 1646, a Dutch fleet arrived in the Philippine Sea. As
the Spanish officers and crew prepared for battle, the Dominican friars advised
the people to do penance and pray for the intercession of Nuestra Sefiora del
Santissimo Rosario (Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary).
After five naval skirmishes between March 15 and October 4,1646, the
Filipinos and Spaniards won the eight-month naval battle of Manila against the
Dutch. This naval victory, until now is being celebrated as Festival La Naval
de Manila in honor of Our Lady, the patroness of the Spanish fleet. This is
truly a manifestation of divine intervention for people to reflect on the
social and moral pressures that threaten the Filipino society.
The first successful foreign invasion of the Philippines, after the
Spanish conquest was the one staged by the British. It happened when Spain
became involved in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) on the side of France and
Austria against Britain and Prussia for the control of Germany and for
supremacy in North America and India. In counterstrike, Britain laid claim to
most of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Orient, including the
Philippines.
On the evening of September 22, 1762 (Manila time), the British fleet
consisting of 13 ships (with around 2,000 men) entered Manila Bay. The
commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Samuel Cornish, while Brigadier General
William Draper was in command of the troops. The following morning, September
23, two British officers sent ashore under a white flag, a truce carrying an
ultimatum to the Spanish officials, demanding the surrender of Manila. Upon the
advice of the council of war, Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, the interim
governor general rejected the ultimatum.
Thousands of Filipino warriors from Pampanga, Bulacan, and Laguna reinforced
the military army in Manila, then with only 556 regular troops.
Their leader was Manalastas, a Pampangueño. Still, they were
outnumbered and out armed. Knives and spears were no match against British
rifles. Draper's cannons tore down the southwest corner of the city walls.
Finally, they were forced to retreat. Although unsuccessful, this battle was
significant for the Filipinos, for it proved their loyalty to Spain and to
Catholicism.
Manila fell into British hands on October 5, 1762 after a white flag
was hoisted at Fort Santiago. This was to stop the horrible slaughter of city
defenders and residents. Terms of surrender were discussed.
Simon de Anda, the youngest order of the Audencia Real had escaped in a
boat on the eve of the fall of Manila. He was dispatched by Archbishop Rojo to
Bulacan to ensure the loyalty of the rest of the provinces to Spain. He
established his headquarters in Bacolor, Pampanga. He continued the government
with himself as the governor general.
Archbishop Rojo had also sent messengers to Palapag, Samar where the
galleon Filipino docked. The ship had brought back from Mexico the situado
(subsidy) of over a million silver pesos. The government wanted to keep this
fund from the British. Under Rojo's instructions, the ship was burned after the
silver coins were taken out safely. Learning about it, Cornish sent his
frigates to Samar but the money had already been placed under Anda's care.
During the brief occupation of the British in Manila, the country had
three governors: Archbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and Honorable Dawsonne
Drake, who established a civil government in Manila. He was appointed by the
East [ndia Company to govern the Philippines.
The brief occupation of Manila by the British resulted to different
reactions. When the British took Pasig, Alimud Din sought refuge and was later
restored to his sultanate in the south. In return, he signed a treaty
permitting the British to establish a trading center in Jolo.
The people of Paranaque stood loyal to the Spaniards. Pampanga and
Bulacan rallied behind Anda. However, in North and Central Luzon, some people
roused in action against the Spanish government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was
instigated by Juan de la Cruz Palaris. In the Ilocos region, Diego Silang
accepted the British bid of support for his cause in fighting against the
Spaniards.
The Seven Years War in Europe came to an end with the Treaty of Paris
signed on February 10, 1763. Among the terms settled was the acquisition of
almost entire French Empire in North America by Britain. The British also
acquired Florida from Spain. England has to restore the Philippines to Spain.
The news reached Manila in a much later date. On May 31,1764, Anda and his
troops went back to Manila amidst the jubilation of the populace in conformity
with the treaty, which formally ended the war.
Source: Maria Christine N. Halili, Philippine
History, 2nd Edition