1.
Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayman (1574)
Cause: Lavezaris's Reversal of
Legazpi's Policy
After the death of Legazpi on August
20, 1572, Governor Guido de Lavezaris no longer exempted the native rulers and
their descendants from paying tribute. He ordered the confiscation of their
patrimonial land properties.
Because of the new policy, Lakandula
and Sulayman decided to rise in arms. Taking advantage of Lim-Ah-Hong's attack
in Manila in 1574, the two chieftains proclaimed their revolt and gathered
their warriors in Navotas.
Juan de Salcedo and Fr. Geronimo
Marin were sent by Lavezaris to persuade them not to carry out their plan. They
were given an assurance that all their grievances would be remedied and those
who took arms would be pardoned. Governor Lavezaris did this gesture to ask
help from Filipino natives in driving away Lim-Ah-Hong from the country.
2.
First Pampanga Revolt (1585)
Cause: Abuses of Encomenderos
Disgruntled by the way the encomenderos administered, some brave Pampangueno
leaders connived with the people of Manila and the Borneans to rise in revolt.
According to their plan, they would
secretly enter the city of Manila one dark night and massacre the Spaniards. A
native woman who was married to a Spanish soldier happened to learn of it and
warned the Spanish authorities about it. The leaders were arrested and executed
without any fair trial.
3.
The Tondo Conspiracy (1587-88)
Cause: Regain Lost Freedom
Attempting to restore freedom and
local leadership being enjoyed during the pre-colonial years, Agustin de
Legazpi (nephew of Lakandula), together with other leaders like Martin Pangan (gobernadorcillo of Tondo), Magat Salamat (son of
Lakandula), Juan Banal (another Tondo chief), Esteban Taes (chief of Bulacan),
Pedro Balinguit (chief of Pandacan), Pitonggatan (chief of Tondo), Felipe
Salonga (chief of Polo), and Geronimo Basi (brother of Agustin de Legazpi)
planned to overthrow the Spanish rulers in the country.
Through a Japanese Christian Fernandez, Agustin
de Legazpi, and his fellow conspirator contacted a Japanese sea captain, Juan Gayo, to get arms and
Japanese warriors to fight the Spaniards. In
exchange, he and his Japanese warriors would be
given one-half of the tribute collected in the
Philippines. Aside from this, help would also be secured from Borneo, l.aguna,
and Batangas. The conspirators with their warriors would then assault the city
of Manila and start killing the Spaniards.
Magat Salamat innocently revealed
the plan to Antonio Surabao, later a Cuyo native who was pretending to be a
supporter. Surabao later recounted this to his master, Pedro Sarmiento (the
Spanish encomendero of Calamianes). Immediately, Captain Sarmiento rushed to
Manila and informed Governor General Santiago de Vera on October 26, 1588, the
existence of a conspiracy against the Spanish government.
Eventually, the governor ordered the
arrest of all persons implicated in the revolutionary plot, including Dionisio
Fernandez, a Japanese interpreter. All these suspects were investigated and
tried in court. They were given harsh penalties. Agustin de Legazpi and Martin
Pangan were brutally hanged. Their heads were cut off and placed in iron cages.
The government seized their properties. The sites of their homes were plowed
and sown with salt to remain barren.
Dionisio Fernandez was hanged and
his property, confiscated. Also executed were Magat Salamat, Geronimo Basi, and
Esteban Taes. The rest were given lighter punishments - heavy fines and some
years of exile from their town. Five of the leading members of the conspiracy
were exiled to Mexico - Pedro Balinguit, Pitonggatan, Felipe Salonga, Calao,
and Agustin Manuguit.
4. Magalat's Revolt, Cagayan
(1596)
Cause: Tribute
During the rule of Governor
Francisco Tello, two brothers instigated the people of Cagayan to rise in arms
against the colonial government because of the latter's arbitrary levy
collection. One of the brothers was called Magalat. The uprising was suppressed
by the authorities. He and his men were kept in Manila as exiles.
The Dominican missionaries of
Cagayan persuaded Governor Tello to pardon them, after knowing the plight of
the two brothers. The favor was subsequently granted. After Magalat was
released, he went back to Cagayan and incited the people to continue the fight.
Many Spaniards and loyal natives were killed by the rebels. Governor Tello sent
Captain Pedro de Chavez to quell the revolt. Magalat, however, remained
undefeated in open battle. Later, the Spaniards decided to hire native
assassins. Magalat was murdered in his own house.
5.
Revolt of the Igorots (1601)
Cause: Refusal to Accept New
Religion
The Spaniards were determined to
convert the Igorots to Christianity. They launched a crusade to proselytize the
highland natives of Luzon and to place them under Spanish authorities. A strong
expedition was sent to the Igorot land to stop the natives from resisting
colonial subjugation. However, the Spaniards were only able to gain nominal
political and military control over them.
6.
Revolt of the Irrayas, Northern Isabela in
the Cagayan Valley (1621)
Cause: Oppression of Spanish
Officials
Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas, a
Dominican missionary, tried to convince the rebels to avoid an uprising against
the abusive Spanish officials. The rebels led by Gabriel Dayag and Felix Cutabay
refused to heed the priest's words of peace. However, they treated Fr. Santo
Tomas and his missionary companions with respect. They allowed the friars to
leave unmolested, with all their ornaments and jewels of the churches.
After the missionaries had left, the
Irrayas began their fight by killing the oppressive encomenderos and burning
their houses. After this bloody incident, the rebels went up to the Basili
River and built their fortification on a rocky hill.
Fr. Santo Tomas returned and
exhorted the leaders to lay down their arms and promised them that the
government would pardon them and remedy their grievances. The revolt ended
without a fight.
7.
The Revolt of Tamblot, Bohol (1621-22)
Cause: Return to Native Religion
In 1621, Tamblot, a babaylan (native priest), reported the appearance
of a diwata who promised the people a life of
abundance, without the burden of paying tribute to the government or dues to
the church. He persuaded the natives to abandon the Catholic religion and rise
against the Spaniards. Around 2,000 Boholanos responded to Tamblot's call.
They began the uprising at the time
when most of the Jesuit fathers, the spiritual administrators of the island,
were in Cebu celebrating the feast of the beatification of St. Francis Xavier.
They burned the villages being supervised by the Jesuits, as well as their
churches. They threw away all rosaries and crosses they could find.
News of the revolt reached Cebu. Don
Juan de Alcarazo, the alcalde mayor, sent immediately an expedition to Bohol,
consisting of 50 Spaniards and more than 1,000 natives from Cebu and Pampanga.
In the midst of a heavy downpour, Tamblot and his followers were crushed.
8.
Bankaw's Revolt, Leyte (1622)
Cause: Return to Native Religion
The
leader of this rebellion was the aged chieftain
of Limasawa, Bankaw, who was one of the first
local leaders who received Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi in 1565. He had been previously converted to Christianity and became loyal to Spain. But in his old age, Bankaw
together with his sons and a native priest
named Pagali, led the people of Carigara, Leyte to rise i n arms in defense of their old religion. Soon they
had the whole island into armed resistance.
Fr. Melchor de Vera, a Jesuit, went
to Cebu and warned the Spanish authorities of the uprising. Alcalde Mayor
Alcarazo sent a fleet of 40 vessels, manned by hundreds of Cebuanos and some
Spanish arquebusiers to Leyte. The rebels were offered peace but they turned it
down.
The Spanish-Filipino forces pursued
them in the hills and defeated them. Bankaw, together with his son and Pagali
perished in the battle. Soon his second son was beheaded as a traitor. His
daughter was taken as captive. Bankaw's head was placed on a stake as a public
warning, to generate fear among the natives.
9.
The Revolt of Ladia (1643)
Cause: Spanish Oppression
Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo, who
claimed to be a descendant of Rajah Matanda, instigated the people of Malolos,
Bulacan to rise in arms against the Spanish government. He was able to recruit
a number of followers but before he could carry out his plan, Fr. Cristobal
Enriquez had already entreated the people to remain loyal to Spain. Ladia was
later on arrested and sent to Manila to be executed.
10.
The Revolt of Dabao (1650s)
Cause: Controversial Decree to Send
Carpenters to the Cavite Shipyard
To move freely among fellow
Christians, Dabao, a Manobo chieftain in Northern Mindanao allowed himself to
be baptized to the Catholic faith. He convinced some new converts to join him
in his plan to kill the religious and all the Spanish soldiers in the fort.
Dabao's opportunity to carry out his
plot came as natives who stole a quantity of maize and rice were being hunted
down. He offered himself to catch them. He took his men to act as prisoners.
Just when the men were going to be set in the stocks for their punishment,
Dabao attacked the captain and the supposed prisoners joined him by taking out
their concealed weapons. All Spaniards in the garrison were killed. Governor
Diego Fajardo offered amnesty to the rebels to end the Northern Mindanao
unrest. However, the rebels who surrendered were either hanged or enslaved or
taken to Manila, where they were sold to Spanish household.
11.
Sumuroy's Revolt, Samar (1649-50)
Cause: Forced Labor
Under Juan Sumuroy's leadership, the
people of Palapag, Samar rose in arms against the government. They resented
Governor Diego Fajardo's order, which involved the sending of men to Cavite
shipyards. Hostilities began on June 1,1649, with the killing of the curate of
the town.
The revolt spread to Albay and
Camarines, Cebu, Masbate, Camiguin, and as far as Northern Mindanao. Sumuroy
won several victories over the Spanish-Filipino forces. At one time, the
Spanish commander offered a large sum of money in exchange of Sumuroy's head.
The rebels sent him the head of a pig instead.
In July 1650, under cover of
darkness and rainfall, the government forces staged an assault on the natives'
fort. The rebels were caught by surprise. Sumuroy's mother perished in the
battle. The revolt ended with individual surrenders. The rebels themselves
killed Sumuroy and brought his head to the Spanish commander.
12.
Maniago's Revolt, Pampanga (1660)
Causes: Frequent Recruitment of Men
to Cut Timber in the Mountains and Bandala
Pampanga's rice production suffered
exceedingly from the disruptive effects of polo.
One thousand Pampanguenos had been working for eight months as timber cutters.
To show their sentiments against the government, the workers mutinied and set
their campsite on fire. They chose Don Francisco Maniago, a chief from the
village of Mexico to be their leader.
The armed rebels gathered in Lubao
under Maniago and another group made preparations in Bacolor. They closed the
mouths of rivers with stakes. Letters to other chiefs in Pangasinan, Ilocos,
and Cagayan were sent, asking them to join the uprising against the Spaniards
and later elect a king of their own.
By the time the province of Pampanga
revolted, the government owed the local inhabitants more than 200,000 pesos due
to unpaid rice purchases from the bandala
system.
The Spaniards tried to end the
rebellion immediately because they knew that the Pampanguenos had been trained
in military art. Governor Manrique de Lara began his maneuver with a show of
force, by bringing with him 300 men in Macabebe. Seeing the well-armed
Spaniards, the Pampanguenos showed cordiality. This caused other rebels to
waver and distrust one another.
Governor Lara called for Juan
Macapagal, chief of Arayat, to a discussion. De Lara treated him well and
assured him rewards if he would
Mcle with the government. Mai apagal
consequently accepted Ihr offer. He went back to Arayat and organized a force
to repress the rebels. His defection discouraged other chiefs. Parish priests
as well as mercenary soldiers were also employed to demoralize the rebels. The
governor general moreover, I imposed a partial payment of 14,000 pesos on the
total amount of 200,000 pesos that the government owed to the Pampanguenos.
The Spaniards concluded an agreement
with Maniago, which brought about peace in Pampanga. For fear that the
Pangasinenses would strike back, the Pampanguenos themselves demanded two
Spanish garrisons in the province, one in Lubao and another in Arayat. From
then on, they never revolted against the colonial government.
13.
Andres Malong's Revolt, Pangasinan (1660-61)
Causes: Spanish Oppression and the
Desire to Replace the Spaniards as Personal Rulers of the People
Spurred by the Pampangueno
rebellion, the natives of Pangasinan also rose in arms against the Spanish
government in Lingayen on December 15, 1660. Several Spaniards were killed,
including an alcalde mayor. Inspired by the growing number of their followers
and their early successes, Malong proclaimed himself a king and directed his
military leaders to place the province under rebel control with his defenses at
the capital town of Binalatongan. He appointed Pedro Gumapos as count,
Francisco Pacadua as judge, and Jacinto Macasiag, and Melchor de Vera as army
generals.
Letters were sent to the people of
Tlocos, Zambales, Pampanga and Cagayan, inviting them to rise against the
Spaniards. The Pampanguenos under Maniago did not join because they had already
made their peace with the Spaniards.
To extend his sovereignty, Malong
sent 6,000 men to Pampanga and 3,000 men to llocos and Cagayan, leaving 2,000
men with him in Pangasinan. But this depleted his forces. The government troops
led by Don Felipe de Ugalde and Don Francisco Esteban outmaneu vered his army
in Pangasinan. He was pursued into the mountains and was caught alive. He was
executed together with Vera, Pacadua, and Macasiag in 1661 in Binalatongan.
14.
The Revolt of Gumapos (1661)
Cause: Continue Andres Malong's
Revolt
Pedro Gumapos and his army of
Zambals killed many Spaniards in llocos. The Ilocanos did not join them; for
their loyalty was to their property. During the Zambal invasion, they hid their
valuables in the Bishop's house and buried other properties.
The bishop assembled the Zambals and
threatened them with excommunication the moment they get anything from the
churches or from his house. But the bishop's words fell on deaf ears.
Gumapos's campaign ended after an
encounter with the Spanish forces. Four hundred rebels were slain and Gumapos
himself was taken prisoner and was later hanged in Vigan.
15.
The Revolt of Almazan (1660s)
Cause: Personal Ambitions
The flames of rebellion soon spread
in Ilocos with Pedro Almazan as the defiant leader. Almazan, a rich chief of
San Nicolas, crowned himself King of Ilocos during the wedding ceremony of his
son to the daughter of another chief. He wore the crown of the Queen of Angels
taken from the church, which the rebels sacked. The rebels were gaining some
headway at the start but the Spaniards eventually suppressed them.
16.
Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663)
Cause: Found a New Religion Under
Native Supervision
The prevalent misdemeanor of Spanish
friars alienated countless natives from the Catholic faith. Tapar, a native of
Panay, wanted to establish a religious cult in Oton. He attracted many
followers with his stories about his frequent conversations with a demon.
Tapar and his men were killed in a
bloody fight against the Spaniards, along with native volunteer soldiers. Their
corpses were impaled on stakes.
17.
Dagohoy's Revolt, Bohol (1744-1829)
Cause: Refusal to Give His Brother a
Christian Burial
Father Gaspar Morales denied
Francisco Dagohoy's brother a Christian burial because the latter died in a
duel. Dagohoy argued that his brother's burial was the responsibility of the
Jesuit priest because he had died carrying out the missionary's order, to arrest
an apostate. The priest refused to bury Dagohoy's brother unless the proper limosnas, or church offerings were given.
The body was left decomposing for three days.
Humiliated by this tragic incident,
Dagohoy got mad and incited the natives of Bohol to revolt. He took around
3,000 men and women to the uplands of Talibon and lnabangan. He set up a
self-sustaining community far from the Spanish authorities. Dagohoy's community
grew in number as more people fled to the hills to avoid being recruited by the
government to join its expeditions in Northern Mindanao as well as to avoid the
harsh impositions of the government.
Dagohoy and his men raided the
Jesuit estate of San Javier. Then they killed the Italian Jesuit curate in
Jagna, Father Guiseppe Lamberti in 1744. Because of the killing, the Spanish
authorities tortured and killed Dagohoy's future father-in-law and the porter
of the church of the slain priest.
The death of the innocent porter drove more
people to join Dagohoy's group. Shortly
afterwards, l ather Morales was killed in cold
blood. Bishop Miguel Lino de Kspeleta of
Cebu tried to pacify the rebels through
negotiations. The plan to send secular priests
to Bohol was not carried out. A 20-year
deadlock set in. The community continued to subsist without outward sign of
rebellion.
Twenty Spanish governors from Caspar
de la Torre (1739-45) to Juan Antonio Martinez (1822-25) tried to stop the
rebellion but failed. In the 1740s and the
1750s, the Spanish government was preoccupied with the Muslim raids.
In 1829, the rebellion finally ended
when Governor Mariano Ricafort pardoned 19,420 survivors and permitted them to
live in the new villages. Nothing has been heard on how Dagohoy died. His
autonomous community lasted for 85 years.
18. Silang's Revolt (1762-63)
I . Causes: His Imprisonment, Abusive Government
Officials, Heavy Taxation
The Ilocanos had already been
complaining about the anomalous collection of tribute and the abuses of the alcaldes max/ores in the exercise of indulto de comercio.
Diego Silang appealed to Don Antonio Zabala, the provincial governor of llocos
to consider the demands of the natives. Regarding him an agitator, Zabala had
Silang incarcerated.
Silang's followers and friends
successfully worked for his release. Taking advantage of the Spanish
preoccupation with the British in Manila, Silang led the revolt of the Ilocanos
and made Vigan the capital of his independent government. His defiance of the
Spaniards lost him support of many principals.
He ordered that those principals who were
opposing him be arrested and brought to him. Should they resist, they were to
be slain. He also imposed a fine of 100 pesos on each priest but lowered it to
80 pesos on their petition. Property of the church was also taken.
Bishop Bernardo Ustariz of Vigan
issued an interdict against Silang and his followers. He exhorted the Ilocanos
to withdraw support for the rebels' cause. In retaliation, Silang imprisoned
all of the latter's followers.
Finally, Spanish Governor Simon de
Anda sent Silang an ultimatum. Fearing that Anda was planning to march to
llocos, Silang decided to seek the protection of the British. Shortly
thereafter, he accepted the Bri tish offer of friendship to fight against the
Spaniards.
However, Silang's leadership ended
with an assassin's bullet. Miguel Vicos, a Spanish mestizo who wished to take
revenge on Silang and Pedro Becbec, a trusted aide of Silang conspired to kill
the rebel leader in exchange of a large monetary reward. Vicos shot Silang in
the latter's house.
Gabriela Silang, Diego's wife,
continued the fight. Nicolas Carino, Silang's uncle, temporarily took command
of the forces. He and Gabriela attacked the town of Santa in Ilocos Sur and won
over the government forces. After the battle, Gabriela went to the forests of
Abra and recruited the Tingguians (Itnegs).
Another battle was fought at
Cabugao, but this time the rebels were beaten. Carino perished in action.
Gabriela and her warriors fled to Abra and organized a new army of Ilocanos and
Tingguians.
With her newly reorganized
battalion, Gabriela marched towards Vigan. She rode on a fast horse and led her
troops into the combat. The loyal archers of the Spanish government repulsed
her attack. Once more, she went back to the mountains of Abra with her
followers. Don Manuel de Arza, lieutenant governor of Northern Luzon and his
Cagayan warriors followed her trail. With the aid of Apayaos and Kalingas, they
captured her and her surviving followers. On September 20,1763, Gabriela and
her companions were executed in Vigan, Ilocos Sur.
19.
Palaris's Revolt (1762-65)
Causes: Tribute, Spain's Loss of
Prestige Due to the British Occupation of Manila
Simultaneous with the Silang revolt
was an uprising in Pangasinan. The local inhabitants wanted the abolition of
the tribute and the removal of loaquin Gamboa,
alcalde mayor of the province for irregularities in tax collection.
The rebellion began on November
3,1762 at the town of Binalatongan under the leadership of Juan de la Cruz
Palaris. From Binalatongan, the spirit of insurrection spread to other towns of
the province. Palaris urged the people to fight since the Spaniards were very
weak because of their defeat at the hands of the British in Manila. For over a
year, he succeeded in driving the Spaniards and friars out of the rebel towns.
The Dominican friars tried to pacify the rebels, but failed.
In March 1764, Don Mariano de Arza
together with 3,000 loyal Ilocano soldiers suppressed the Revolt of Palaris in
Pangasinan. Palaris was publicly hanged.
20.
Basi Revolt (1807)
Cause: Wine Monopoly of 1786
Due to the wine monopoly of the
government, the Ilocanos were prohibited to drink homemade basi (wine fermented from sugarcane). They were
compelled to buy wine from government stores.
On September 16, 1807, the Ilocanos
of Piddig, Ilocos Norte, rose in arms in defense of their favorite wine, basi. The rebellion spread to the neighboring
towns, Badoc and Santo Domingo.
The Spanish alcalde muyot, who was residing in Vigan, sent a force of 36 soldiers and two
column* of civilian guards with a cannon to attack Badoc. However, on September
28, 1807, the
alcalde mayor
together with a strong force of regular troops attacked them at San lldefonso
and quelled the revolt.
21.
Revolt in Defense of the Spanish
Constitution (1815)
Cause: Abolition of the Liberal
Spanish Constitution
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was
very much influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution - Liberty,
Equality, and Fraternity. This democratic constitution granted human rights to
both Spaniards and Filipinos. It was promulgated by the Spanish Cortes
(Parliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegates of Spain and her colonies
(including the Philippines). One of its signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a
Filipino.
Upon knowing that this constitution
was abolished on May 4, 1814 by the despotic
ruler King Ferdinand VII, an explosion of violence in the country against the principales took place. The masses suspected that
the principales were behind this, since they had been presumed aiding the
Spanish authorities to perpetuate in power.
On March 3, 1815, more than 1,500
Ilocanos of Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, under the leadership of Simon Tomas rose in
arms in defense of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Ilocanos plundered the
houses of rich Spaniards and pro-Spanish natives. They also looted the churches
and killed some friars and officials. The Spanish government rushed infantry
and cavalry forces to the rebellious towns in the Ilocandia. The revolt ended
on March 6, with the surviving leaders of the rebellion severely punished.
22.
Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822)
Cause: Feeling of Distrust between
the Peninsulares and the Creoles
The
insulares in the Philippines, as well as the
Creoles in other colonies of Spain resented the extra privileges given
to the peninsulares. The feeling of distrust
and antagonism between the peninsulares and
the Creoles became intense in the early
decades of the 19th century.
Inspired by the achievements of the Creole liberators in Latin America from 1808 to
1826 and influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution (1789-1799), the
three Bayot brothers - Manuel, Jose, and Joaquin - sons of Colonel Francisco
Bayot, a prominent creole of Manila, conspired with other Creole officers of the Battalion Real Principe, to
overthrow the government, which was dominated by the
peninsulares. The plot was to be carried out on April 17,1822 at dawn.
A few days before April 17, the plan
of the Bayot conspiracy was discovered. Governor Mariano de Folgueras alerted
the Queen's Regiment and surrounded the barracks of suspected rebels with loyal
troops and 15 cannons. The Bayot brothers were imprisoned after a trial.
23 Religious Revolt of Hermano Pule (1840-41)
Cause: Religious Freedom
Apolinario de la Cruz went to Manila to pursue
priestly vocation under the Dominican order. He was not accepted on the ground
that he was an itidio (native). At that time,
all religious orders were closed to indios.
In June 1840, Apolinario, better
known as Hermano Pule returned to Lucban, Tayabas Province (now Quezon
Province), and founded the Cofradia de San Jose (Confraternity of St. Joseph),
a nationalist fellowship, which fostered the practice of Christian virtues.
Hermano Pule sought the recognition of
his religious brotherhood. However, Governor General Marcelino Oraa and
Archbishop Jose Segui, upon the recommendation of the Spanish friars, banned
his confraternity. Undaunted by the intolerance of the government authorities,
he carried on his religious movement at Barrio Isabang of Mount Banahaw, then
later moved his camp at Alitao, at the foot of Mount Cristobal. His brotherhood
attracted thousands of followers in Tayabas, Laguna, and Batangas.
On November 1,1841, Lt. Col. Joaquin
Huet, a veteran Spanish combat commander, launched a massive assault in Alitao,
killing hundreds of defenseless old men, women, and children. Hermano Pule was
captured the following evening at Barrio Ibanga and was executed on November 4,
1841. The Spanish soldiers paraded his chopped body from Tayabas to nearby
Lucban, his birthplace.
Enraged by the merciless killing in
Alitao, the non-commissioned officers and soldiers of the Tayabas Regiment
secretly planned to rise in arms under the leadership of Sergeant Irineo
Samaniego. After a few hours of fighting at Fort Santiago, Samaniego and his
men were routed, captured and shot to death at Bagumbayan at sundown of January
21,1843.
24. Muslim Wars (1578-1898)
The Spaniards made attempts to
subdue the inhabitants of Mindanao by deploying its military forces in the
South. The Muslims on the other hand, valiantly resisted and repulsed the
colonizers. They retaliated by raiding territories under Spanish rule with
varying degrees of intensity. The war between the Muslim Filipinos and the
Spaniards (aided by Christian Filipinos) lasted for more than 300 years.
The Muslim wars were brought about
by the following reasons: the Spanish invasion of Mindanao and Sulu,
preservation of Islam, and the love of adventure arising from the spoils of
wars.
In 1597, the Spanish colonizers
tried to seize Jolo and force the sultanate into submission. After his
victorious battle in Borneo for the Spanish Crown, Governor Francisco de Sande
sent forces to Jolo, under the command of
Captain Esteban Rodriguez Ue I
igueroa. He ordered the pacification of the place and the payment ot tribute by
the inhabitants to the colonial government. Sultan Pangiran Budiman (Muhammad
ul-Halim) resisted the •ittack. However, Sulu fell into Spanish hands. Pearls
were given as tribute to the Spaniards.
The Muslims, haughtily referred to
by the Spaniards as Mows, avenged by
plundering coastal towns under Spanish dominion. Sirungan and Salikala prepared
a stronger force of 70 vessels and 4,000 warriors, a year .liter their first successful
raid in the Visayas in 1599. This time, they were repulsed with heavy losses at
Arevalo, lloilo province by 1,000 Visayan warriors and 70 Spanish arquebusiers
under the command of Don Juan Garcia de Sierra, a Spanish alcalde mayor who
died in the fight.
To embark its operations over Muslim
Mindanao, the Spaniards built fortified stations in particular areas. On June
23, 1635, Father Melchor de Vera along with 1,000 Visayans began the building
of the stone fort in the province. This fort was named Fort Pilar (in honor of
Nuestra Senora del Pilar, the patroness of Zamboanga), which helped the
government forces in their campaign against the belligerent natives.
The Spaniards tried to conquer
Maguindanao but were thwarted by native resistance. From 1600-1650, the sultan
of Maguindanao, Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat (Corralat
in Spanish records) held power in regions from the Gulf of Davao all the way to
Dapitan.
On March 13, 1637, Governor Corcuera
with his Spanish-Filipino troops landed at the mouth of Rio de Grande de
Mindanao. The next day, Lamitan, Sultan Kudarat's capital in Cotabato fell into
the hands of the Spaniards. Kudarat retreated to a hill called Ilihan.
Corcuera's troops assaulted the place and finally captured it after a bloody
encounter. Defeated by the Spaniards, Kudarat was able to escape together with
his brave wife, carrying a baby.
On May 24, Governor Corcuera
returned to Manila and was given a conqueror's welcome - with music, religious
festivals, and a moro-moro performance (a
stage play about the contending Christians and Muslims with the former emerging
as victors).
The fighting Moros intensified their
efforts to continue the battle against the Spaniards. After nursing his bullet
wound in one arm, Sultan Kudarat later mounted raids on Spanish settlements in
Luzon and the Visayas and inspired fellow Muslims never to submit to the
Spanish colonizers. The Muslims also assaulted the Spanish outposts in Mindanao
and Sulu. In 1645, the Tausugs finally liberated Jolo from the Spanish forces.
In 1749, Sultan Alimud Din I was
deposed by his brother Bantilan because of his friendship with the Spaniards.
On January 2,1750, he and his family, together with some faithful followers
arrived in Manila. The sultan was royally received by Bishop Juan de Arrechedera,
the acting governor general. On April 28 of the same year, he was baptized by
the Dominican fathers at Paniqui, Tarlac. He was named Don Fernando Alimud Din
I, the first Christian sultan of Jolo. His son, Israel, and his daughter Fatima
were likewise converted to Christianity and given education in Manila.
In 1751, Governor General Jose
Francisco de Obando wanted Alimud Din I to regain his throne in Jolo. The
sultan left Manila for Jolo and stopped at Zamboanga. The Spanish commander in
Zamboanga claimed to have intercepted a letter from Alimud Din I to a sultan in
Mindanao, which was allegedly treasonable. Alimud Din I was shipped back to
Manila and later imprisoned at Fort Santiago.
Governor General Pedro Manuel de
Arandia, Obando's successor, released Alimud Din I and granted him royal
privileges. In 1762, the British troops rescued Alimud Din I at Pasig and later
restored to him his throne in Jolo.
The Spanish forces, plunged in its
conflict with the British and the local rebels, were unable to control the Mow (plunderer) raids on Christian pueblos in the
Visayas and Luzon. The height of Moro wars
occurred in the second half of the 18th century. In 1769, the Moros landed at Malate and plundered the place.
According to Spanish records, an
average of 500 Christians were captured and sold annually as slaves in Betavia,
Sandakan, and in other slave markets in the East Indies. The Spanish government
spent huge sum of money for military operations against the marauding troops of
the South.
In the closing decades of the 19th
century, the Moro power declined. In 1848,
Governor General Narciso Claveria, using new steamships, attacked the Samals at
Balanguingui. They brought 350 Samal prisoners to Manila.
On December 11,1850, Governor
General Antonio de Urbiztondo left Manila for Zamboanga in command of a force
consisting of 100 troops of artillery and 500 infantry to subjugate the Muslims
of Sulu. Upon his arrival in the last week of the month, he desisted from
fighting, realizing that his force was not enough to capture Jolo. He sailed
again to Jolo in January 1851. Sulu warriors fired upon his ships. The Spanish
force retaliated and burned down 1,000 houses and around 100 bancas (boats) in
Tungkil before sailing back to Zamboanga. The following month, after a
reinforcement of his troops, Urbiztondo attacked Jolo. The natives of Sulu lost
over 100 men, and were forced into the interior.
In 1861, after more expeditions by
the Spaniards in Maguindanao, the sultan finally recognized Spanish
sovereignty. However, resistance continued under Datu Ugto in upper Pulangi.
Superior Spanish arms allowed the colonizers to remain in Maguindanao until
1899.
In 1874, Admiraloni? M.iU.impo became the Spanish governor
general in the Philippines. I le prepared a mighty armada for the invasion of
Jolo. This would put an end to the devastating raids of the Tausugs on the
Christian pueblos. The attack lasted for 24 hours. On March 1, 1876, Sultan
Jamalul A'lam worked for peace with the Spaniards.
Sultan Jamalul A'lam of Jolo transferred
his capital to Maimbung. The Sultanate of Sulu, being a sovereign government
was able to lease Sabah (North Borneo) to a British company. On January
22,1878, Sultan Jamalul lam leased
Sabah to Mr. Alfred Dent, an Englishman and Baron Gustavus Von Overbeck, an
Austrian of British North Borneo Company for an annual rental of 5,000 Malayan
dollars. The contract in 1878 used the Tausug word "padjack,"
which means lease. (The rental was increased to 5,300 Malayan dollars in 1903
to 1963).
The sultan of Jolo, a direct
descendant of Sultan Kudarat, acquired sovereignty over North Borneo (Sabah)
the second half of the 17th century. When the sultan of Brunei
sought help to the sultan of Jolo to suppress a rebellion in 1704, the Sabah
territory was ceded to the latter in 1715 out of gratitude.
In 1886, Governor General Emilio
Terrero led the invasion to Cotabato to subdue the Moro Maguindanaoans.
Terrero's forces destroyed some kutas (forts)
of Datu Utto but failed to crush Utto's fighters. After suffering heavy losses,
Governor Terrero decided to return to Manila.
In 1891, Governor General Valeriano
Weyler, known as the "Butcher" for his ruthless suppression of early
revolts in Cuba, invaded Lanao. On August 21, 1891, he won the First Battle of
Marawi in Lanao Lake. Datu Amai Pakpak, the defender of Marawi, was able to
escape. He recruited more warriors to fight against the Spanish invaders.
Failing to conquer Lanao, Weyler assaulted Cotabato. However, he was
overpowered by Datu Ali Jimbangan and his fierce
krismen (warriors).
In 1895, Governor General Ramon
Blanco invaded the Lanao Lake region. Blanco's troops attacked Marawi on March
10,1895. In this second battle of Marawi, the heroic Datu Amai Pakpak died in
action. Blanco won his battle, but he failed to conquer Lanao like Terrero and
Weyler. To avenge the fall of Marawi and the death of Datu Amai Pakpak, the
Muslim warriors declared a jihad (holy war),
forcing Blanco to halt the campaign and return to Manila.
The bitter warfare between the
Spaniards and the Muslims ended in 1898, after the signing of the Peace Treaty
of Paris on December 10, 1898, which ended the Spanish domination in the
Philippines.
25. The Rise of Filipino Nationalism
Nationalism was said to have rooted
from a strong feeling among populace that they belong to the same race. Such
sentiment has not yet existed in the Philippines prior to the 19th
century. Although the cultural traits of the early Filipinos had striking
similarities, their linguistic differences as well as the local autonomy of
each political unit in the archipelago barely yielded to the development of
this national sentiment. The absence of adequate means of transportation and
communication made the situation even more dismal.
The transition of the country's
traditional societal structure to colonial bureaucracy brought about the
awareness of the local inhabitants as to their common source of anxiety and
suffering. Unknowingly, the Spanish government planted the seeds of nationalism
by perpetuating poverty and injustice among the lower classes of society. The
following have been regarded in history as factors that gave rise to Filipino
nationalism:
1.
Spread of liberalism. When Spain gradually
exposed the Philippines to international commerce in the late 18th
and early 19th centuries, liberal ideas from Europe filtered in. The
thoughts of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke, Jefferson, and other
political philosophers were made known through books and periodicals brought
into the country by men from foreign ports.
The transformation of the Philippine
economy into a raw material market for Europe unconsciously increased their
contact with the intellectual tradition of the West. The improvement in
transportation and communication facilities required by increased foreign trade
also brought the Filipinos closer, and made them realize their common
predicament.
When Spain opened the Philippine
ports in 1834 to free trade, commercialization of Philippine agriculture and
economic expansion greatly benefited the principalia
in the country. They were able to send their children to schools and even to
educational institutions in Spain, thereupon giving them exposure to
libertarian ideals.
The dissipation of European and
American liberalism in the country was even facilitated with the opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869. In like manner, the ideas of masonry (i.e., freethinking,
anticlerical, and humanitarian) also made the new middle class aware of the
repressive policy of the Spanish authorities in the colony thus, making
themselves more outspoken on the excesses of the friars and government
officials.
2.
Sentiment against the principales. There was a
mounting dissatisfaction against the principales
(or the political and social aristocracy, which includes the prominent
land-owning and propertied citizens), accommodated as intermediaries of the
Spanish government from the inception of its colonial rule.
The manse* Iwul Nfen skeptical about
the local aristocracy due to their proportion of influence in the society. The
Ilocano insurrection in 1815 was a manifestation of the people's cry to mass
movement.
3.
Racial prejudice. The Spaniards commonly
regarded the Filipino natives as belonging to the "inferior race" and
haughtily called them as indios. The
preconceived notion of the Spanish colonizers that the natives could not rise
beyond their "limited intelligence" instigated the enlightened
Filipinos to struggle for equality. Jose Rizal's annotation of Antonio de
Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
denounced the allegations of the Spaniards that the Filipinos were savages and
had no culture prior to the coming of the Western colonizers.
4.
Cultural changes. The educational reforms of
1863 dramatically improved the standards of education in the primary level.
With the implementation of a new educational system, qualified Filipinos were
able to pursue higher education. Young men from prosperous Chinese mestizo and
native families were able to take up law, medicine, and pharmacy. They were
able to see the repressive colonial policies of Spain after being enlightened
with liberal ideas; thus, giving birth to a new breed of Filipinos - the ilustrados (enlightened ones).
The
ilustrados got the chance to manifest their political will when Carlos
Maria de la Torre became governor general in 1869. This benevolent governor was
able to show his liberal disposition in administering the government after he
invoked reforms in the government like the revocation of press censorship and
the abolition of flogging as a form of punishment. He even lived simply within
his means. Governor de la Torre as a result, inspired the Filipino middle class
to sustain their campaign for reforms in the country.
5.
Secularization controversy. The mandatory
provision of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) affirmed that secular priests be
appointed to administer the parishes in the colony. Due to lack of secular
priests, Pope Pius V issued in 1567, upon the request of King Philip II, the Exponi Nobis, which allowed the regular clergy
(those belonging to monastic orders) to serve as parish priests without
diocesan authorization and be exempted from bishop's authority.
However, the appointment of regular
clergy to Philippine parishes brought about dissension among members of the
Church. The regular orders at the outset resisted diocesan visitation on the
ground that this would place them under two superiors, the head of their
religious order and the bishop as well.
This caused
the expulsion of priests who refused the visitation of parishes by representatives of the bishop. The
members of the Society of Jesus, SJ (Jesuits) were expelled from the country
for this reason.
The parishes vacated by the Jesuits
(expelled in the country in 1768) were given to the native seculars. In the 18th
century, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa accepted the resignation of
regular priests and appointed native secular priests to the parishes.
The royal decree, which was
promulgated on November 9, 1774 ordering the secularization of the parishes (or
the turnover of parishes supervised by regular clergy to the seculars), became
the basis for the appointment of native secular clergy. However, this royal
decree was suspended in 1776 owing to friar opposition, as well as the
unpreparedness of the native priests.
The return of the Jesuits in 1859 as
well as the policy of desecularization directly affected the native seculars.
In the 1870s, overt opposition against the abuses of Spanish officials and
agitation for reforms became evident among Filipino clergy.
The secularization controversy
transformed into a Filipinization issue since the secular priests were mostly
Filipinos. The effort to secularize the parishes in a way heightened the
nationalist feeling of the people.
Some of the strong proponents of the
secularization movement of parishes were Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez
and Father Jose Burgos (both from the Archdiocese of Manila).
In December 1870, Archbishop
Martinez wrote to the Spanish Regent advocating secularization and mentioned
that discrimination against Filipino priests would encourage anti- Spanish sentiments.
Cavite Mutiny of 1872. In 1868, a
revolution led by the liberals in Spain deposed Queen Isabella II and gave rise
to the Provisional Republic of Spain. With the victory of the Spanish
revolution, many colonial officials with democratic ideals were sent to Manila,
which included Governor General Carlos Maria de la Torre in 1869.
The republican government was
overruled with the restoration of monarchy. Amadeo, son of King Victor Emmanuel
II of Italy accepted the invitation to assume the Spanish Crown in December
1870. With the alteration of the system of government in Spain, the political
atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed. When Rafael de l/quierdo replaced Governor de la Torre in he
promptly d i.scarded the liberal measures. The
privileges of the arsenal workers and engineer corps regarding exemption from
tribute and forced labor were also abolished.
As an expression of protest, on the
night of January 20, about 200 Filipino soldiers and dock workers in the
province of Cavite mutinied and killed their Spanish officers under the
leadership of Sergeant Lamadrid (others write La Madrid). The rebellion was
quickly suppressed. Two days after the mutiny, Lamadrid was executed together
with 41 mutineers in Bagumbayan.
The mutiny became an opportunity for
the Spanish officials to implicate the liberal critics of the government. The
governor general asserted that a secret faction existed in Manila to overthrow
Spanish rule. Accused of alleged conspiracy in the rebellion were Fathers
Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. They were sentenced to death by
garrote on February 17,1872.
Some were thrown into jail while the
rest were exiled to the Marianas Islands on March 14,1872. Among those who left
on board in the Flores de Maria were Father
Jose Maria Guevarra, Father Pedro Dandan, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio
Maria Regidor, Maximo Patemo, Jose Maria Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and Pio Maria
Basa.
The Spaniards succeeded in uniting
the Filipinos in a common spirit to oppose colonial authority. Between 1872 and
1892, national consciousness was growing among Filipinos who had settled in
Europe. The execution of GOM-BUR-ZA eventually hastened the growth of Filipino
nationalism.
The concept of nationhood coincided
with the development of the concept of Filipinos. Before, Filipinos would only
refer to the espafioles insulares. Later,
they had included the mestizos de sangley and
the native elite who had Hispanized themselves. The propagandists tried to
infuse the term Filipino with national meaning, which later included the entire
people in the archipelago.
26. Propaganda Movement
Many Filipinos took refuge in Europe
and initiated in Spain a crusade for reforms in the Philippines. The emergence
of more Filipino ilustrados gave birth to a
unified nationalist movement. This campaign was known in our history as the
Propaganda Movement.
The aim of
the Propaganda Movement was peaceful assimilation, referring to the transition of the Philippines from
being a colony to a province of Spain. The
propagandists believed that it would be better if the Filipinos would become
Spanish citizens, since they would be enjoying the same rights and privileges
of the latter. Its adherents did not seek independence from Spain but reforms.
These reforms were as follows: equality
of Filipinos and Spaniards before the laws; restoration of the Philippine
representation in the Spanish Cortes; secularization of Philippine parishes and
the expulsion of the friars; and human rights for Filipinos, such as freedom of
speech, freedom of the press, and freedom to meet and petition for redress of
grievances.
Those who joined this peaceful
campaign were the Filipino exiles of 1872, the patriots who left the islands to
escape persecution, and those who had been to Spain for their studies. Although
not all of the propagandists were sons of wealthy Filipinos, they were scions
of good families. One of the greatest was Marcelo H. del Pilar, a lawyer and
journalist from the town of Bulacan. His eldest brother Toribio, a priest, was
implicated in the Cavite Mutiny and exiled. From then on, he joined in dupluhan and dalitan or
literary jousts during fiestas. During a pintakasi
(cockfighting day), he spoke out to the crowd by satirizing corrupt officials
and friars.
Del Pilar also sought to reach out
to people through his pen. He wrote his anti-friar pamphlets in simple yet
forceful Tagalog. In 1882, he helped establish the first bilingual (in Spanish
and Tagalog) newspaper, the Diariong Tagalog.
He became the editor of the Tagalog section.
Between 1887-1888, when anonymous
manifestos against the friars were distributed to the public, he released Dasalan at Tocsohan (Prayers and Mockeries), a
manual of anticlerical commentary in the format of novena. He parodied the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, the Apostles' Creed, the Ten
Commandments, the Act of Contrition,
and the catechism. With these anticlerical protests, Del Pilar's stay in the
country became dangerous. His house was burned mysteriously. He left the
Philippines in October 1888 to escape the prosecution of the friars.
Like Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena
parodied religious literature in his satires. In lloilo, he saw the misery of
rural communities and the abuses perpetrated by civil and religious
authorities. He wrote Fray Botod or
"Friar Potbelly" (circa 1874) where he ridiculed a cleric named Fray
Botod, who arrived looking like a hungry mosquito and soon became stout because
of the stocks taken from the people. Because of his anticlerical literature, he
moved to Madrid where he joined other Filipino expatriates into journalism.
Among those who had gone to Spain to
study was Jose Rizal, born to a well-to-do family in Calamba, Laguna. In 1882,
he went to Spain and studied medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid. His
prestige was greatly enhanced
by the publication of his socio-historical novel Noll Mi' lungere (Touch Me Not) in 1887.
The Noli reflected the defects of the Spanish rule in the Philippines,
particularly the abuses of the friars. The impact of the story on the Spaniards in the Philippines
was so intense, that later the reading of it was forbidden in the country.
Rizal may have been the first
Filipino political cartoonist. In his Ketchbook,
he drew lampoons of Chinese merchants and the cover design lor the Noli included
the hairy calf and the slippered foot of a Spanish friar.
Other great Filipino propagandists
were Pedro A. Paterno, lawyer; Antonio Luna,
pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano Laktaw, teacher- tutor of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later King
Alfonso XIII of Spain); and I abelo de los
Reyes, folklorist and newspaperman. Juan Luna, known lor his monumental
painting Spoliarium, and Felix Resurreccion
Hidalgo, acclaimed for his masterpiece, Virgenes Cristianas Expuestas al Populacho (Christian
Virgins Exposed to the Rabble), also joined the movement for reforms.
The Filipino propagandists were also
supported by a number of Spanish friends. In 1882, Juan Atayde, a Spaniard born
in Manila founded the Circulo Hispano-Filipino.
Unfortunately, the society did not stay long due
to shortage of funds and also because of the lack of confidence of the members
in Atayde.
Professor Miguel Morayta, Rizal's
professor at Central University of Madrid, tried to form the Asociacion Hispano-Filipino in 1889. This
association was concerned with instituting reforms in the Philippines. The
association lobbied successfully for the passage of some laws, which included
the law pertaining to the compulsory teaching of Spanish and the laws providing
reforms in the judiciary. However, these laws were not fully implemented
considering the return to power of the reactionary group in Spain.
Since the membership of the
association was composed mostly of Spaniards, it failed to secure the support
of many Filipinos, including Dr. Jose Rizal and Antonio Luna. The young
Filipinos felt that the Spaniards and the
were too moderate in dealing with their clamor for reforms.
Finally, the La Solidaridad (Solidarity), a purely Filipino
organization was established in Barcelona on December 31, 1888. This took place
at a traditional New Year's Eve banquet with Galicano Apacible as president and
Graciano Lopez Jaena as vice-president. Rizal, who was in London during that
time, was named as the honorary president.
To make known the objectives of the
Propaganda, Graciano Lopez Jaena founded a fortnightly newspaper, La Solidaridad in Barcelona on February 15,1889.
Marcelo H. del Pilar recently arrived from the
Philippines. He joined the group and helped prepare the issues.
hi
Solidaridad was printed in Barcelona from February
15 to October 31, 1889, then in Madrid, where it was printed from November 15,
1889 until its last issue on November 15,1895. From December 15,1889 until its
last issue, M. H. del Pilar became the editor, replacing Lopez Jaena.
The contributors of La Solidaridad were mostly Filipinos like M. H.
del Pilar (Plaridel), Dr. Jose Rizal (Dimas Alang, Laong Loan), Mariano Ponce (Naning, Kalipulako, or
Tigbalang), and Antonio Luna (Taga-Ilog). Some
foreigners also contributed their articles, like Professor Ferdinand
Blumentritt and Dr. Morayta.
Many Filipino propagandists turned
masons, including Dr. Rizal and M. H. del Pilar because they needed the help of
the masons in Spain and in other countries in their fight for reforms. This
organization called Freemasonry, consisted of fraternal lodges, which later
evolved into social societies subsequently opened to non-masons.
In the Philippines, the first
masonic lodge was established in Manila in 1856. As a rule, masonic lodges,
were not opened to Filipinos. It was in Spain where Filipino expatriates,
students, and intellectuals found themselves attracted to the ideals of
equality, religious tolerance, fraternity, and liberty espoused by the free and
accepted masons.
The first Filipino Masonic Lodge
called Revolution was founded by Lopez Jaena
in Barcelona. This lodge was recognized by the Grande Oriental Espanol headed
by Morayta in April 1889. The Revolution did
not last long. It ended after Lopez Jaena resigned as Worshipful Master on
November 29,1889.
The following month, M. H. del
Pilar, with the help of Julio Llorente, organized
Lodge Solidaridad in Madrid, with the latter as the first Worshipful
Master. Grande Oriente Espanol recognized it in May 1890. Lodge Solidaridad eventually prospered that other
Filipinos joined it, including Dr. Rizal, Pedro Serrano Laktaw, Baldomero
Roxas, Galicano Apacible, and others.
Towards the end of 1891, M. H. del
Pilar sent Pedro Serrano Laktaw to the Philippines to establish the first
masonic lodge in Manila. Thus, the Lodge Nilad
was founded on January 6,1892. In one of their meetings, the masons set forth
their platform. They wanted a dignified, free and prosperous country with a
democratic regime and a genuine and effective autonomy, and a good government.
They were asking for reforms. They wanted representation in the Cortes as well
as the declaration of the country as a Spanish province, with all the rights
and obligations.
As of May 1893, the masonic lodges
in the country numbered thirty- five, nine of which were in the city of Manila.
They also accepted women members. The first woman to be admitted was Rosario
Villaruel, who was initiated as a member of the
Lodge Walana on July 18, 1893. Other female members were Trinidad Rizal,
Romualda Lanuza, Josefa Rizal, Marina Dizon, Sixta Fajardo, Valeriana Legazpi,
and Purificacion Leyva.
Almost simultaneously with
the introduction of masonry in the Philippines, Rizal wrote the constitution of La Liga Filipina (The Philippine League) while
living in Hong Kong with the help of Jose Ma. Basa.
In Hong Kong, Rizal drafted a
proposal to Governor General Eulogio Despujol to establish a Filipino colony in
Sabah, Borneo, but the latter refused. Rizal's scheme was meant to help resolve
the plight of ejected tenants from Calamba, Laguna.
After arriving in Manila on
June 26, 1892, Rizal conferred with Governor General Eulogio Despujol to obtain
pardon for his family. He met with some Filipinos around the city, then took
the train to Malolos, Bulacan; San Fernando and Bacolor, Pampanga; and Tarlac.
On the night of July 3, 1892,
Rizal founded La Liga Filipina at the
residence of Doroteo Ongjunco in llaya St., Tondo, Manila with Ambrosio
Salvador as president; Deodato Arellano, secretary; Bonifacio Arevalo,
treasurer; and Agustin dela Rosa, fiscal. Among those present in the meeting
were Pedro Serrano Laktaw (Panday Pira),
Domingo Franco (Felipe Leal), Jose A. Ramos (Socorro), Moises Salvador (Araw), Faustino Villaruel (Haw), Numeriano Adriano (Ipil), Apolinario Mabini (Katabay), and Andres Bonifacio {May Pag-asa).
La
Liga was to be a sort of mutual aid and self-help society, dispensing
scholarship funds and legal aid, loaning capital and setting up cooperatives.
The league's motto Unus Instar Omnium (one
like all) served as an avowal of their ideals. Based in its constitution, the
objectives of the Liga were: the unification
of the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogeneous body;
protection in cases of want and necessity; defense against violence and
injustice; encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and the
study and implementation of reforms.
The goals of La Liga were to be carried out by the Supreme
Council, the Provincial Council, and the Popular Council. Each member of the
league had to pay 10 centavos as monthly dues. The members ought to choose a
symbolic name.
The members became quite
active. Bonifacio for one, exerted great efforts to organize chapters in
various districts in Manila. Rizal himself caused the circulation of a
handbill, Ang Karapatan ng Tao, printed in
both Tagalog and Spanish. This was his translation of the French, Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789.
This situation alarmed the
Spanish authorities. On July 6, 1892, Rizal was secretly arrested by order of
Governor General Despujol and subsequently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. The
following day, the governor general ordered the deportation of Rizal to
Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte as punishment for his allegedly subversive
materials.
Some of the members of the La Liga Filipina found out that peaceful agitation
for reforms was not enough. This time, they opted for thr country's freedom
more than anything else. Andres Bonifacio was one of them. He did not join the Los Compromisarios or
Cuerpo de Compromisarios led by Domingo Franco. This faction pledged to
continue supporting the Propaganda Movement in Spain.
The radical ones led by Bonifacio
believed that the welfare of the people could' not be achieved by requests for
reforms but by an armed revolution. Their goal was transformed from
assimilation to separation and then independence.
On the night of July 7, 1892,
Bonifacio and his friends met secretly at Deodato Arellano's house at No. 72
Azcarraga Street (now Claro M. Recto) near Elcano Street in Tondo, Manila. They
decided to form a secret revolutionary society, modeled in part on Masonic
Order called Kataastaasan Kagalang-galangang
Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Respected Society of the
Sons of the People), otherwise known as K.K.K. or Katipunan, dedicated to
national independence through armed revolution.
The men, gathered around a
flickering table lamp, signed their membership papers with their own blood. It
was agreed that the members be recruited by means of the triangle method in
which an original member would recruit two members who did not know each other
but only knew the original member who took them in. They also decided during
the meeting, the payment of an entrance fee of one
real fuerte (twenty-five centavos) and a monthly due of medio real (about twelve centavos).
The triangle method was abolished in
December 1892 after it was found out to be too cumbersome. New converts were
initiated into the secret society using rites borrowed from the masonry. The
neophyte was made to swear to guard the secrets of the society.
More than a secret society, the
Katipunan was a government itself with a constitution promulgated in 1892, and
another constitution replacing the first one in 1894. The central government of
the Katipunan was vested in a Kataastaasang Sanggunian
(Supreme Council) with the officials aforementioned.
In each province, there was a Sangguniang Bayan (Provincial Council), and in
each town, a Sangguniang Balangay (Popular
Council). The judicial power resided in a secret chamber called Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council).
There were three grades of
membership in the Katipunan. The first grade called a katipun (associate), wore a black mask at the
Katipunan meetings. His password was Anak ng Bayan
(Sons of the People). The second grade called kawal
(soldier), wore a green mask. His password was i.OM'BUR-ZA.
The third gi.ulr tailed bui/um (patriot), wore a red mask. I Us password was Rizal,
the honorary president of the Katipunan.
During the first election, the
following officers of the Supreme Council were chosen:
Deodato
Arellano - President
Andres
Bonifacio - Comptroller
Ladislao
Diwa - Fiscal
Teodoro
Plata - Secretary
Valentin
Diaz - Treasurer
There were also women members of the
Katipunan, but they were not required to sign with their own blood. To be
admitted in the women's section, one had to be a wife, daughter, or sister of a
Katipunero (male member) to ensure the secrecy of the movement. Among the women
members were Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife, who was called the Likambini of the Katipunan; Benita Rodriguez, the
wife of Katipunero Restituto Javier; and Josefa and Trinidad Rizal, sisters of
Dr. Jose Rizal.
The women guarded the secret papers
and documents of the society. When the Katipunan held a meeting in a certain
house, they made it appear that a real social party was going on. Likewise,
they were also helping the society by recruiting more members. The women's
chapter of the Katipunan was born during the presidency of Roman Basa (second
president) in July 1893. Josefa Rizal was elected President of the women's
chapter called La Semilla.
Bonifacio deposed Arellano as
president in a meeting in February 1893 because of the latter's inaction.
However, early in 1895, Bonifacio realized that Roman Basa was as ineffective
as Deodato Arellano, that he called a meeting of the society and readily
deposed Basa. Bonifacio himself was elected Supremo
(President).
With the Katipunan's organizational
setup, Bonifacio turned his attention to the symbol of its authority. Upon his
request, Benita Rodriguez, with the help of Gregoria de Jesus, made a flag,
which consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with three white K's
arranged horizontally at the center. This was the first official flag of the
society; however, some members had their flag with three K's arranged in the form of a triangle. Others had
one K at the center of the red flag. Some
generals of the revolution, likewise, adopted their own designs.
Knowing the importance of a primer
to teach the members of the society its ideals, Emilio Jacinto prepared one,
which he called Kartilla, a word adopted from
the Spanish cartilla, which at that time
meant a primer for grade school students. (Former UP President Rafael Palma, a
revolutionary patriot, noted that Apolinario Mabini wrote the original statutes
of the Katipunan's Kartilht .hk Emilio Jacinto translated it into Tagalog for
the benefit of the unschooled members of the Katipunan).
The Kartilla
consisted of 13 teachings, which the members of the society were expected to
observe. The primer constituted the following:
I.
Life which is not consecrated to a lofty and
sacred cause is like a tree without a shadow, if not a poisonous weed.
II.
A good deed that springs from a desire for
personal profit and not from a desire to do good is not kindness.
III.
True greatness consists in being charitable, in
loving one's fellowmen and in adjusting every movement, deed and word to true
Reason.
IV.
All men arc equal, be the color of their skin
black or white. One may be superior to another in knowledge, wealth, and
beauty, but cannot be superior in being.
V.
He who is noble prefers honor to personal gains;
he who is mean prefers personal profit to honor.
VI.
To a man with a sense of shame, his word is
inviolate.
VII.
Don't fritter away time; lost riches may be
recovered, but time lost will never come again.
VIII.
Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
IX.
An intelligent man is he who is cautious in
speech and knows how to keep the secrets that must be guarded.
X.
In the thorny path of life, man is the guide of
his wife and children; if he who guides moves toward evil, they who are guided
likewise move toward evil.
XI.
Think not of woman as a thing merely to while
away with time, but as a helper and partner in the hardships of life. Respect
her in her weakness, and remember the mother who brought you into this world
and who cared for you in your childhood.
XII.
What you do not want done in your wife, daughter
and sister, do not do to the wife, daughter and sister of another.
XIII.
The nobility of a man does not consist in being
a king, nor in the highness of the nose and the whiteness of the skin, nor in
being a priest representing God, nor in the exalted position on this earth, but
pure and truly noble is he who, though born in the woods, is possessed of an
upright character; who is true to his word; who has dignity and honor; who does
not oppress and does not help those who oppress; who knows how to look after
and love the land of his birth. When these doctrines spread and the Sun of
beloved liberty shines with brilliant effulgence on these unhappy isles and sheds its null rays upon the united people and brothers in everlasting
happiness, the lives, labors, and sufferings of those who are gone shall be
more than recompensed. (Teodoro Agoncillo, History
of the Filipino People, Quezon City: Malaya Books, 1970, p. 181).
Bonifacio wrote a decalogue or 10
commandments titled Katungkulang (iagawin tig mga Anak tig Bayan (Duties to be
Observed by the Sons of the Country) to lay down the guidelines for good
citizenship. This document in manuscript form still exists. The rules include
love of God; love of country and one's fellowmen; diligence in work; sharing of
one's means with the poor; punishment of scoundrels and traitors; and the
guarding of the mandates and aims of the K.K.K.
Another step taken by the Katipunan
to propagate its teachings was the establishment of a printing press. In 1894,
the Katipunan bought an old hand press with the money donated by two patriotic
Filipinos from Visayas - Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban. These two
Katipuneros, who came back from Australia in 1895, had one thousand pesos
between them for having won in the lottery. The types used in printing were
purchased from Isabelo de los Reyes, and many were stolen from the press of the Diario de Manila (Manila Daily) by Filipino
employees who were members of the Katipunan.
Under Emilio Jacinto's supervision,
two patriotic printers, Faustino Duque and Ulpiano Fernandez, printed the Kalayaan, the organ of the Katipunan, to
disseminate the ideals of the society. Kalayaan
had its first and only issue in January 1896, which carried a false masthead
stating that it was being printed in Yokohama with Marcelo H. del Pilar as
editor. This was to deceive the Spanish authorities and evade arrest.
Published in the Kalayaan was an essay titled "Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog" (What
the Filipinos Should Know) attributed to Bonifacio. This composition dealt with
the three questions asked of Katipunan applicants: "What were the
conditions in the Philippines before Spanish conquest? What is the condition of
the country today? What will the Philippines be tomorrow?"
Copies of the Kalayaan reached members and possible recruits
through the efforts of Macario Sakay and Pio del Pilar as distributors. The
Katipuneros were tirelessly recruiting members in Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, and
Cavite. The society grew and began to spread into the non-Tagalog provinces. By
August 1896, there were thousands of Katipunan members in the arrabales of Manila and some 18,000 in other
towns.
During the Holy Week of 1895,
Bonifacio and some Katipuneros went to the mountains of Montalban in search of
a good hideout where they could hold their secret meetings. On April 10, 1895,
Bonifacio and his companions including Emilio
Jacinto, Restituto Javier, and Guillermo Masangkay entered the Pamitinan Cave
(Cave of Bernardo Carpio) on Mount Tapusi in the mountain ranges of San Mateo
and Montalban. There they held a secret session leading to the initiation rites
of new recruits. After the session, Aurelio Tolentino picked up a piece of
charcoal and wrote on the cave wall in Spanish, "Viva La Independencia
Filipina!"
In the early part of 1895, Bonifacio
became the Supremo (head of the Supreme
Council). He also occupied this position in the fourth and fifth elections of
the Supreme Council, in December 1895 and August 1896, respectively.
On June 15, 1896, Dr. Pio
Valenzuela, acting as Bonifacio's emissary, sailed for Dapitan to get Rizal's
support for the armed revolution. To cover his real mission from Spanish
authorities, he brought with him a blind man named Raymundo Mata, who was in
need of Dr. Rizal's medical services. Rizal did not agree to the Katipunan's
plans of an armed uprising since the people were not ready for it.
By the middle of 1896, as the
Katipunan was busy preparing for a revolution, hints about its existence
reached the Spanish authorities. On July 5,1896, Manuel Sityar, the Spanish
lieutenant of the Civil Guards stationed at Pasig, reported the questionable
activities of some Filipinos.
On August 13, 1896, Father Agustin
Fernandez, Augustinian curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuel Luengo,
the civil governor of Manila, about the evening gatherings in his parish,
apparently by men plotting against the Spaniards.
The Katipunan was finally discovered
on August 19. Teodoro Patino, a member of the Katipunan betrayed the secrecy of
it to Father Mariano Gil, an Augustinian parish curate. On the basis of
Patino's information, the Spanish authorities acted immediately.
The Spanish cazadores (civil guards) began making hundreds of
arrests. Many of them died of suffocation while detained at the overcrowded
Fort Santiago. Two Katipuneros acting as spies for the governor of Manila told
Bonifacio about the discovery.
On August 21-22, Bonifacio called
for a meeting at the house of Vidal Acab, then to the residence of Apolonio
Samson in Kangkong, Caloocan to issue the call to arms. Emilio Jacinto summoned
the heads of Katipunan Councils to Kangkong to discuss their measures against
the Spanish forces.
The next day, August 23, Bonifacio,
Jacinto, and other Katipuneros met at Bahay Toro, Pugadlawin, Balintawak, north
of Manila and gathered at the residence of Melchora Aquino, known as Tandang
Sora.
In the mass meeting held in the yard of a son of Melchora
Aquino, fhe Katipuneros tore their ccdulus personates (certificates), the symbol of the Filipino vassalage
to Spain .it the same time shouting, "Long live the Philippines! Long live the
Katipunan!" This event is recorded in history .is the Cry of Pugadlawin or Cry of Balintawak, which
proclaimed their defiance to the Spanish government.
At Hagdang Bato, Mandaluyong,
Bonifacio gave his last manifesto Katipunang
Mararahas ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Society of Enraged Sons of the Country)
regarding the revolution that would take place in Manila.
Bonifacio led his army to attack the polverin (powder depot) in San Juan .it the dawn of Sunday, August 30,1896. This is now
known as the Battle of Pinaglabanan. The
Spaniards outnumbered the revolutionaries who were not
fully armed. Due to heavy casualties, Bonifacio and his surviving men were forced to retreat to Balara.
A day earlier, August 29, Melchora
Aquino, was arrested by the Guardia Civil at Pasong Putik, Novaliches, and
jailed at Bilibid (prison) for giving aid to
the Katipuneros.
In the afternoon of August 30,
Governor General Ramon Blanco, in trying to quell the Philippine Revolution,
issued a decree declaring a state of war in
Manila and seven Luzon provinces - Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga,
Nueva Ecija, and Tarlac and placed them under martial law.
The decree also provided that those who would surrender within 48 hours after
the publication of the decree would be pardoned except the leaders of the
Katipunan.
Taking advantage of the amnesty
provision, some Katipuneros surrendered like Valenzuela. However, the Spanish
authorities only subjected them to torture to make them squeal matters about
the revolution.
After the San Juan del Monte Battle,
Bonifacio, Jacinto, and other leaders like Macario Sakay, Apolonio Samson,
Faustino Guillermo and General Lucino (alias Payat) set up camp in the hills
near Mariquina (now Marikina), San Mateo, and Montalban. More Filipinos joined
them.
Series of executions by the
government began after the proclamation of a state of war. Blanco inaugurated a
reign of terror in the belief that this would stop the rebellion. On September
4, four members of the Katipunan were executed at Bagumbayan. On September 12,
thirteen were put to death at Plaza de Armas, near the Fort of San Felipe in
Cavite and are now remembered as "Los Trece Martires" (The Thirteen
Martyrs of Cavite). They were Maximo Inocencio, Luis Aguado, Victoriano
Luciano, Hugo Perez, Jose Lallana, Antonio San Agustin, Agapito Conchu,
Feliciano Cabuco, Maximo Gregorio, Eugenio Cabezas, Severino Lapidario, Alfonso
de Ocampo, and Francisco Osorio.
On September 16, 22 prominent
residents of Manila were imprisoned
The following month, around 150
Filipino citizens were loaded on S.S. Manila
bound for Cartagena, Spain. From there, they were taken Fernando Po in Africa
to serve as exiles for their alleged involvement in the rebellion.
Meanwhile, Rizal was arrested while
on his way to Cuba to serve an a doctor for the Spanish army. On November 20,
Dr. Jose Rizal appear before Colonel Francisco Garcia Olive to answer the
charges filed again t him. By December 26, the litigation of Rizal took place
before a military court. Two days after, Governor Camilo Polavieja approved the
verdict. Convicted of sedition, rebellion, and illicit associations, Rizal was
executed by a firing squad at Bagumbayan Field (now Luneta) on December
30,1896, at 7:03 a.m. Eight Filipino soldiers, with eight Spanish soldiers
behind them carried out the execution.
Such incidents involving detention,
deportation, and execution only made the Filipinos more unrelenting to the
Spanish government. The more they became determined to continue the struggle.
The Katipuneros in Cavite rose in
arms on August 31, 1896. They assaulted the tribunal
(municipal building) of San Francisco de Malabon. At Cavite el Viejo (now
Kawit), the Magdalo troops led by Candido Tria Tirona attacked the enemy
garrison. The Magdiwang forces on the other hand, pounded the Spaniards in
Noveleta.
In the morning of September 5,
Emilio Aguinaldo and his men assailed the Spanish troops stationed at Imus
under the command of General Eusebio Aguirre. In this battle, the Spaniards
lost hundreds of men and 60 guns with ammunition. From that time on, the Cavitenos
recognized Aguinaldo as a man of distinguished valor and called him Heneral Miong, no longer Capitan Miong.
The Spanish regular army were
tremendously defeated at the twin battles of Binakayan and Dalahican in Cavite,
fought on November 9-11. Both Magdiwang and Magdalo forces in their respective
trenches built by General Edilberto Evangelista (an engineer trained in
Belgium) fought furiously against the Spanish army under the personal command
of Governor General Blanco. Unfortunately, Candido Tria Tirona, the secretary
of war in the Magdalo Council died in the Battle of Binakayan.
The citizens of Taal, Lemery,
Calaca, and Bayungyungan in Batangas also joined the revolution at the end of
October 1896. However, they were dispersed after the Spanish garrison in Taal
came to the aid of the besieged towns.
At the outbreak of the revolution,
the number of Katipuneros grew, in December 4, 1896, the katipunan members of
Balangay Dimasalang met at Bigaa (now Pandi and Balagtas) in the province of
Bulacan. They wanted to reinforce their operation against the Spaniards and to
conduct an election of officials under their newly founded Kakarong Republic.
Led by General Eusebio Roque (also known as Maestrong
Sebio and Dimabungo), Canuto Villanueva, and Casimiro Galvez, around 6,000 men and women enlisted
themselves as members.
The Spanish government had already
known the existence of the Katipunan at Kakarong Real (a.k.a. Kakarong de Sili)
because of the armed resistance it had begun against them since August of 1896.
On January 1, 1897, the government
troops under General Olaguer- Feliu rushed to the fortifications of Kakarong and
launched a massive assault against the people, including civilians. The
revolutionaries, caught by surprise, resisted with ferocious courage but they
were overwhelmed by the superior armaments of the enemy. Around 1,100 rebels
were killed. The government forces captured six fortified positions, seven
cannons, a cartridge factory, and a large number of firearms.
Maestrong Sebio managed to escape
his persecutors at first. Ten days later, he was captured and arrested at Bunga
Mayor, Bustos. On January 16,
at 5:00 in the afternoon, Maestrong Sebio was
executed.
With the objective of ending the
revolution, Governor Polavieja launched an all-out offensive on February
15,1897 in Cavite. On February 17,
a Spanish sniper killed General Evangelista in
the Battle of Zapote. Two days later, General Lachambre of the Spanish forces
captured the town of Silang. General Aguinaldo aided by Generals Vito Belarmino
and Artemio Ricarte, mounted a counteroffensive, but failed to get Silang back.
On February 25, 1897, the town of
Dasmarinas, Cavite, was taken by the Spanish troops led by General Antonio
Zabala who also attacked Salitran (barrio of Dasmarinas), which was defended by
General Flaviano Yengko. Yengko was mortally wounded in action and died on
March 3, 1897 at Imus Military Hospital. Yengko was the youngest general of the
Philippine revolution, being younger than General Gregorio del Pilar by one year,
two months and seven days. In the bloody battle of Salitran, General Zabala was
killed by Yengko's troops.
On May 17 of the same year, the
Katipuneros led by Francisco del Castillo attacked a Spanish garrison in Aklan.
Unfortunately, the leader died in action. His men decided to retreat into the
mountains.
The amnesty offer of government
lured 20 Katipuneros to accept it. Not true to its promise, the government
killed 19 of them. The martyrs of Aklan were Ramon Aguirre, Benito Iban, Maximo
Mationg, Tomas Briones, Candido Iban, Simplicio Reyes, Domingo dela Cruz,
Simeon Inocencio, Canuto Segovia, Valeriano Dalida, Isidro Jimenez, Gabino
Sucgang, Claro Delgado, Catalino Mangat, Angelo Fernandez, Gabino Yorisal,
Francisco Villorente, Lamberto Mangat, and Valeriano Masinda.
In Cavite, there were two Katipunan
councils - the Magdalo Council, headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio
Aguinaldo's cousin), and the Magdiwang Council with Mariano Alvarez (uncle of
Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife) as president.
The capital of Magdiwang Council was
Noveleta, then later transferred to San Francisco de Malabon (now General
Trias). The other towns under its jurisdiction were Rosario, Tanza, Naic,
Ternate, Maragondon, Magallanes, Bailen, Alfonso, Indang, and San Roque. The
Magdalo Council had its capital in lmus. The other towns under its jurisdiction
were Kawit, Dasmarinas, Silang, Amadeo, Mendez, Nunez, Bacoor, and Carmen.
Emilio Aguinaldo first gained
popularity after he had beaten a sergeant of the Guardia Civil in a single
combat. He even became more renowned after his successful uprising in Kawit
(his hometown), then in the Battle of lmus and in the early part of November
1896, he liberated the town of Talisay, Batangas, from the Spanish soldiers.
Upon invitation of the Magdiwang
Provincial in Cavite, Bonifacio left his hideout in Morong. On December 1,1896,
he and his wife, together with his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio), General
Lucino, and 20 soldiers arrived in Cavite.
The Magdalo Council hosted a general
assembly of both factions in lmus on December 31, a day after Rizal's
execution. Bonifacio conducted the meeting. Among the issues discussed were the
establishment of a revolutionary government under the new elected officials and
uniting the Magdiwang and Magdalo forces under a single command. The Magdalo
faction believed that with the outbreak of revolution, the Katipunan had ceased
to be a secret society and therefore should be replaced by a new one.
The Magdiwangs insisted that there
was no need to create a revolutionary government because the Katipunan was
actually a government with a constitution and bylaws recognized by everyone.
General Edilberto Evangelista tried to reconcile the two groups by drafting a
constitution establishing the Philippine Republic. This constitution was
reportedly discussed in the assembly. Due to heated debates arising from the
issues, the assembly accomplished nothing definite. Its proceedings ended with
the arrival of Josephine Bracken (Dr. Jose Rizal's widow), accompanied by
Paciano Rizal. They later agreed to reschedule the joint assembly at a
different place.
The Second Convention of these two
Katipunan factions was held on March 22, 1897 at Tejeros, San Francisco de
Malabon, Cavite. The two factions met at an estate-house of the friars, which
the rebels had captured earlier. Majority of those who attended were the
Magdiwangs. General Aguinaldo and other Magdalo officials were absent because
they were defending the Magdalo towns at that time.
The session, which started at about
two o'clock in the afternoon was presided by Jacinto Lumbreras, a Magdiwang.
Severino de las Alas, a Magdiwang, suggested that the convention assembled
should resolve whether there should be a new government to replace the
Katipunan. Lumbreras called for a recess after this issue led to another heated
discussion.
As it turned out, the convention
upheld the views of the Magdalo Council. The majority wanted a new
revolutionary government. This resulted to the election of new officials.
Bonifacio presided over the election. Before the casting of votes had taken
place, Bonifacio reminded that whoever should get elected in any position
should be respected. Elected were as follows:
President - Emilio
Aguinaldo
Vice-President - Mariano Trias
Captain General - Artemio Ricarte
Director of War - Emiliano Riego de Dios
Director of the Interior - Andres
Bonifacio
Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, protested
Bonifacio's election saying that his position should be occupied by a lawyer.
He suggested a Caviteno lawyer, Jose del Rosario, for the post. Bonifacio felt
insulted. He demanded Tirona to retract what he had said. But Tirona, instead
of offering an apology, tried to leave the scene. This infuriated Bonifacio and
made him drew his revolver to shoot Tirona, but Ricarte and others intervened.
The people began to leave the hall. Bonifacio angrily declared the election
null and void and left the assembly room with his bodyguards.
From Pasong Santol, a barrio of
Dasmarinas, Aguinaldo went to Tejeros as informed by a special committee headed
by Col. Vicente Riego de Dios. Being the new president, he had to take his
oath. He was sworn into office inside the Catholic Church of Santa Cruz de
Malabon (Tanza) together with other newly elected officials.
A day after the Tejeros Assembly,
March 23, Bonifacio gathered his followers and drafted a document called Acta
de Tejeros, signed by Bonifacio and 44 other plotters.
This document rejected the
revolutionary government of Aguinaldo on the following grounds: first, the
Tejeros Assembly lacks legality; second, there was a Magdalo conspiracy to oust
Bonifacio from leadership; third, the election of officials was fraudulent; and
fourth, that actual pressure has been brought upon the presidency.
Another secret meeting was held on
April 19, 1897 at the friar estate house in Naic. Bonifacio and his
coconspirators drew up another document called the Naic Military Pact, signed
by 41 men, including Bonifacio, Ricarte, Pio del Pilar, and Severino de las
Alas. An army corps under the command of General Pio del Pilar was created.
While
Bonifacio and his companions wen." busy
conferring, Major Lazaro Makapagal who
was held prisoner downstairs managed to escape and informed President Aguinaldo,
who was in bed suffering malaria, about the recent developments. Aguinaldo rose
from his sickbed and went to the friar-estate house to confront his
conspirators.
Seeing that Aguinaldo's soldiers had
already surrounded the estate house, Bonifacio and his Magdiwang followers left
hurriedly except General Pio del Pilar and General Mariano Noriel who
subsequently joined Aguinaldo's troops.
President Aguinaldo convoked a
revolutionary assembly in Naic. The following matters were taken up: adoption
of a new red flag with a white sun of eight rays at the center, a standard
uniform for the soldiers - the rayadillo and
a set of new rules fixing military ranks and their insignias; and, the
reorganization of the revolutionary army.
Bonifacio, with his wife Gregoria,
his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio) and loyal followers fled to Limbon
(barrio of Indang). Upon learning of Bonifacio's presence at Limbon and the
alleged crimes committed by his soldiers in Indang, Aguinaldo summoned Colonels
Agapito Bonzon, Felipe Topacio, and Jose lgnacio Paua to go to Limbon with some
troops and arrest Bonifacio and his men. Bonifacio furiously resisted.
Ciriaco Bonifacio and two soldiers
were killed, while Bonifacio himself was wounded in the left arm and neck.
Bonifacio (in a hammock), Gregoria, and the surviving Bonifacio soldiers were
taken prisoners and brought to Naic.
The case of the Bonifacio brothers
evolved quite rapidly after a Council of War headed by General Mariano Noriel
was created. The trial begun on May 5, with Placido Martinez as defense
attorney for Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzalez for Procopio. Tragically, the
Bonifacio brothers were given the penalty of death the next day The charges
were treason, conspiracy to assassinate President Aguinaldo, and bribery.
Pio del Pilar testified in the trial
of Bonifacio saying that the latter had been forcing officers to join him. As
for Severino de las Alas, it was he who made the false charges that the friars
bribed Bonifacio to establish the Katipunan and made the Filipinos into
fighting a war for which they were poorly armed. He also said that Bonifacio
ordered the burning of the convent and church of Indang and that his soldiers
had taken by force from the people, carabaos and other animals. He also accused
Bonifacio and his men that they were planning to surrender to the Spaniards.
Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Giron,
turning as state witness, told the Council that Bonifacio gave him an initial
payment of 10 pesos to assassinate Aguinaldo but he refused to follow the
order.
On May 10, 1897,
General Noriel ordered Major Lazaro Makapagal to release the
Bonifacio brothers from prison. He gave Makapagal a sealed letter with orders
to read its details after reaching their destination.
Makapagal took four men with him and
opened the letter upon the request of Bonifacio. The letter ordered the
execution of Andres and his brother Procopio. Included in the letter was a
warning that failure to comply with the order would result to severe
punishment. Makapagal followed the order and executed them at Mount Nagpatong,
Maragondon (according to the National Historical Institute). Makapagal placed a
few twigs on the shallow grave of the two brothers.
On the same day, the Spanish army
attacked Maragondon. Upon Makapagal's return, he found the Filipinos
retreating. On May 12, after two days of
defending the town, Aguinaldo and his men were compelled to leave. They crossed the mountains to Batangas and
aided General Miguel Malvar in a fight against the Spaniards in Talisay. On
June 10, they crossed the Pasig River and
bivouacked at Mount Puray, Montalban. Two days later, the
Morong freedom fighters under General Licerio Geronimo arrived and joined them.
Tired of successive combats, General
Camilo de Polavieja asked for his relief as governor general. His request was
given on April 15,1897, with Fernando Primo de Rivera succeeding his post on
April 23.
Governor General Rivera issued a
decree granting pardon to rebels who would give up their arms and surrender
until May 17. Most Filipinos simply ignored this decree. Thereafter, the
governor general launched a campaign against the rebels, forcing Aguinaldo and
his forces to seek refuge in Batangas.
On June 14, the Spanish troops led
by Colonel Dujiols attacked the rebel camp at Mount Puray. Aguinaldo and his
men resisted. After six hours of bloody fighting, they won over the Spaniards.
After the Battle of Mount Puray,
President Aguinaldo organized the Department of Central Luzon under the
jurisdiction of the revolutionary government. The Department Government was
headed by Father Pedro Dandan, canonist of the Manila Cathedral as President
with Dr. Anastacio Francisco, Vice-President; Paciano Rizal, Secretary of the
Treasury; Cipriano Pacheco, Secretary of War; Teodoro Gonzales, Secretary of
the Interior; and Feliciano Jocson as Secretary of Welfare.
President Emilio Aguinaldo and his
men headed for Bulacan. Finally on June 24, 1897, they arrived at Biak-na-Bato,
San Miguel de Mayumo. From this area, Aguinaldo and his men joined the troops
of General Mariano Llanera of Nueva Ecija in assaulting Spaniards stationed in
the Central Luzon provinces. With the coming of the rainy season, Primo de
Rivera's offensive attacks temporarily ceased.
On November 1, the revolutionary leaders met and adopted a
constitution titled the Provisional Constitution of
the Philippine Republic. It was intended
to be effective for two years. It declared that the aim of the revolution
was the separation of the Philippines from Spanish monarchy and the formation
of an independent state. Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer wrote the provisional
constitution, which was based on the Cuban Constitution known as Jimaguayu
Constitution.
On the same day, the Biak-na-Bato
Republic was also inaugurated and the officials were: Emilio Aguinaldo,
President; Mariano Trias, Vice- President; Isabelo Artacho, Secretary of the
Interior; Antonio Montenegro, Secretary of Foreign Affairs; Baldomero
Aguinaldo, Secretary of the Treasury; and Emiliano Riego de Dios, Secretary of
War.
The struggle between the Spanish
government and the Biak-na-Bato Republic had reached a deadlock. Governor
General Primo de Rivera sent Pedro Paterno to Biak-na-Bato for peaceful
negotiations with the revolutionaries, which began in August and was concluded
in December.
This agreement known as the Pact of
Biak-na-Bato, resulted to the voluntary exile of Aguinaldo and his men to Hong
Kong. This pact consisted of three documents. The first two were signed on
December 14, and the third on December 15,1897.
The first document, called Program, provided that Governor Primo de Rivera
would pay 800,000 pesos to those who rose in arms and would let Aguinaldo and
his men to retire in voluntary exile to Hong Kong. The second document called Act of Agreement, reiterated the granting of
amnesty to those who would lay down their arms and the privilege to move freely
in the Philippines and abroad.
The third document discussed the
question.of indemnity, wherein Spain would pay a total of 1,700,000 pesos, of
which 800,000 pesos was to be paid to those who would lay down their arms as
mentioned in the first document. The remaining 900,000 pesos was to be
distributed among the civilian population as indemnity for the damages created
by the war.
On December 25, 1897, Aguinaldo with
Pedro Paterno and others went to Lingayen, Pangasinan, from where a Spanish
merchant steamer was to take them to Hong Kong. Two days after, Aguinaldo and
25 other leaders sailed for Hong Kong on board the steamer Uranus, in compliance with the pact. General
Artemio Ricarte stayed behind at Biak-na-Bato to supervise the surrender of
arms by the revolutionaries.
The Spanish government announced the
end of hostilities on January 23, 1898. It proclaimed amnesty two days later;
and it gave part of the promised money to the rebels in Hong Kong. However,
after the peace pact, neither side fully complied with the terms of the
agreement. The government never instituted the expected reforms. Likewise, the
Filipinos continued their plan to overthrow the government.
There were sporadic uprisings in
different parts of the country. On March 7, 1898, the revolutionaries in
Zambales besieged the cable station at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line
connected to Manila. On March 25, Federico Isabelo Abaya and his men were able
to get Candon, llocos Sur, from the Spaniards.
Pantaleon Villegas, popularly known
as Leon Kilat incited a revolt in Cebu known as Tres
de Abril in retaliation of the March 25 incident when the Spaniards
massacred many Visayan sailors at Camba Street, Manila.
In Central Luzon, General Francisco
Makabulos of Tarlac established a provincial revolutionary government with a
constitution written by him. The Makabulos Constitution adopted on April 17,
1898, set up this provisional government in Central Luzon to continue in force
until a general government for the Republic was established.
In Malolos, General Isidoro Torres
established his camp to continue the revolutionary spirit. Revolts were also
experienced in Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and other islands in the country. Feliciano
Jocson, a pharmacist, incited the patriots in Manila to continue the fight
against the Spaniards.
Aguinaldo and his officers went into
exile but did not end the fight to win independence from Spain. On a letter
written in Hong Kong dated February 19,1898, Mariano Ponce stated that General
Aguinaldo had signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato because under its terms, the
Filipino revolutionists could rest and regain their lost strength and then
return to combat with renewed vigor.
31. The
Spanish-American War (1898)
The Spanish-American war, which
broke out on April 25,1898, ended on August 12 of the same year. There were
factors that contributed to the United States' decision to open hostilities
against Spain. These included the Cuban struggle for independence, efforts of
the Americans to extend influence overseas, and the sinking of the U.S. warship Maine.
Like the Filipinos, the Cubans were
fighting against Spain to obtain their independence. Under the leadership of
Jose Marti, the Cubans revolted in 1895. The Cuban rebels rejected Spain's
offer of autonomy, instead of complete independence. The brutalities committed
by the Spanish government in Cuba such as the rounding up of peasant population
and placing them in concentration camps were made to suppress local rebellion.
Thousands died due to illnesses and limited food provisions. Such cruelties
infuriated the American public.
The New
York Journal and the New York World
were among the American newspapers, which published the stories about the
alleged atrocities committed by the Spanish government in Cuba. They called for
the U.S. government to intervene on the side of the Cubans. This idea won
widespread support among American citizens and politicians. This gave rise to
the belief of Manifest Destiny, where the
United States has the divinely ordained duty to help troubled countries.
America's
open support for the Cuban revolution and her vast investments in Cuba's sugar industry
led her involvement in this Spanish colony. Spain could not oppose the
United States, a rising powerful nation, in the face of the Cuban Revolution.
A letter of Spain's Ambassador to
the United States (Dupuy de Lome) to a friend in Havana, Cuba, was stolen and
published in a New York periodical. It stated that US President William
McKinley was a weakling and a low politician. This created a national feeling
among the Americans to support the war against Spain.
The replacement of the Spanish
ambassador could not, however, relieve the aggrieved American populace. The
provocation was heated up after the mysterious blowing up of the U.S.
battleship Maine in Havana, Cuba, which was
sent by the U.S. consul general in the city to protect American citizens and
property. This incident happened on the night of February 18, 1898. It
reportedly resulted in the death of 266 officers and men. (In 1976, based on
U.S. Navy Study, the findings suggested that the explosion could have been
caused by spontaneous combustion in the ship's coal bunkers).
The American authorities viewed the
assault in Havana as an act of treachery. US newspapers blamed Spain for the
tragedy and evoked American sympathy with this cry, "Remember the Maine."
On April 19, the U.S. Congress
passed several resolutions demanding the pull out of Spanish forces in Cuba. To
save her honor, Spain declared war against the United States on April 24. The
next day, the U.S. Congress declared war on Spain and thus, the
Spanish-American war began.
Past noon of April 25, Commodore
George Dewey, commander of the Asiatic Squadron received a cable from the
Secretary of Navy stating that war has commenced between the United States and
Spain. Dewey was instructed to proceed against the Spanish fleet anchored in
Manila Bay.
An often-debated question in the
U.S. during those times was why a U.S. naval squadron should be sent to the
Philippines in order to end Spanish rule in Cuba. This has been ascribed to the
growing spirit of American imperialism induced by supporters of Manifest Destiny, which in like manner encountered
considerable opposition in the United States.
The conclusion of the
Spanish-American war, which resulted to the victory of the Americans, paved the
way to the end of the Spanish colonial rule and the rise of the United States
as a global power.
At the time of the Spanish-American
war, General Emilio Aguinaldo was in Singapore where he had negotiations with
the American consul general, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, regarding the Americans'
offer to support the Philippines in fighting the Spaniards. The United States
would then recognize Philippine independence after the defeat of Spain. Pratt
advised Aguinaldo to meet with Commodore Dewey who was then based in Hong Kong,
if he were to join the latter should he sail for the Philippines.
General Aguinaldo rushed to Hong
Kong but missed Commodore Dewey who had already sailed to Manila to destroy the
Spanish fleet. Dewey proceeded at once to Manila with his fleet consisting of
four armored cruises - Olympia, Baltimore, Boston,
and Raleigh and two gunboats - Concord and Petrel
The Battle of Manila Bay began on
May 1,1898 at 5:40 a.m. and ended at noon. Admiral Patricio Montojo of the
Spanish forces incurred heavy casualties with 160 of his men killed and 210
wounded. The Spanish forces consisting of 12 ships, including the flagship
Reina Castilla were subdued. The U.S. naval squadron had no fatal casualties.
None of the ships was heavily damaged.
This battle made Dewey an instant
hero. The Congress promoted him to rear admiral and later admiral. However, the
U.S. naval squadron could not attempt to occupy Manila in the absence of ground
troops, which did not arrive until about three months later.
On news of Dewey's victory, ships
from Britain, France, Japan, and Germany began to arrive in the Manila Bay
area. They had recently obtained concessions from China for naval bases and
designated commercial spheres of interest. At that time, Germany had sent her
warships to protect the interests of her nationals in the Philippines.
The German fleet of eight warships
led by Admiral Von Diedrichs was especially aggressive. The fleet acted
provocatively by cutting in front of American ships. They supplied the city
with flour and other products, ignoring the American economic blockade on the
Spaniards in the city. This angered Dewey. He sent an ultimatum to Von
Diedrichs to stop it or else fight. Captain Edward Chichester of the English
fleet came to support Dewey. Von Diedrichs, fearing to risk battle with the
combined Anglo- American fleets, ended his hostile activities.
Upon the advice of the Hong Kong
junta, General Aguinaldo left on board the McCulloch (others say McCullough),
Dewey's dispatch vessel, and arrived in Cavite on May 19, 1898. He reassumed
command of rebel forces. His first act upon his return was his proclamation on
May 21, urging the people to rise in arms and join the Americans in a common
struggle against the Spaniards.
On May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo
established a dictatorial government, with him as the dictator, upon the advice
of Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista. Aguinaldo established a new government to
revoke the authority of the Biak-na-Bato Republic and unite the revolutionary
forces. At that time, a dictatorship was necessary to carry out the war
successfully. This government was temporary and was to last only until a
republic could have been established.
On May 28, the Consultative Assembly
instituted by Governor General Basilio Augustin met for the first time. But the
Filipinos did not like to settle for the projected reforms. They clamored for
total independence. On the same day, Aguinaldo's new army repulsed the Spanish
marines at Alapan, a barrio in Imus, Cavite. The Philippine Flag (The Sun and
Stars Flag) was first unfurled in the Battle of Alapan.
This initial success inspired other
people to relive the revolutionary spirit. During the subsequent days, the
Spanish forces were routed in Bataan, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Laguna,
Batangas, Tayabas (now Quezon), and other provinces.
The capture of Manila was the
principal objective of General Aguinaldo. He and his troops commanded by
General Gregorio del Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano Noriel,
among others, surrounded the city.
Dewey's squadron dominated the bay
and thus, the Spaniards were trapped within the city walls. Aguinaldo's men had
cut off the supply of foodstuffs and potable water in the city. The populace
suffered terribly during the siege. Aguinaldo offered Governor General Augustin
terms for an honorable surrender but the latter rejected him. Dewey demanded
the surrender of Manila on August 7. Consequently, the Spanish governor general
honorably conceded.
Source: Maria
Christine N. Halili, Philippine History, 2nd Edition
No comments:
Post a Comment